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THE 

CHAMPION TEXT- BOOK 

ON 

EMBALMING 



A. COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE ON THE SCIENCE AND ART OF 
EMBALMING, GIVING THE LATEST AND MOST SUCCESS- 
FUL METHODS OF TREATMENT, INCLUDING 
DESCRIPTIVE AND MORBID ANATOMY, 
PHYSIOLOGY, SANITATION, 
DISINFECTION, ETC. 



BY ELIAB MYERS, M.D.. 

LECTURER AND DEMONSTRATOR IN THE MYERS (FORMERLY CHAMPION) 
COLLEGE OF EMBALMING 



FIFTH EDITION 

GREATLY ENLARGED AND ALMOST ENTIRELY REWRITTEN 



PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED 

8Y OVER ONE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS, HALF-TONES, AND COLORED PLATES 



SPRINGFIELD, OHIO: 
The Champton Ctixmical. Company 






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Copyright, 1897, 1900, and 1306 

EV THE 

CHAMPION CHEMICAL CO. 
All Rights Reserved, 









PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION 



The favorable reception with which the first four editions of the 
CHAMPION TEXTBOOK on Embalming have met in this country, has 
induced me to spare no exertion to render the' fifth edition worthy of 
the continued confidence of the profession as a guide to the embalmer and 
as a textbook for the student in the science of embalming. 

With this in view the entire work has been brought right up to date. 
Several chapters have been rewritten, and sufficient new matter added to 
embody all of the more recent advances in the science of embalming. 

It has ever been the ardent desire of the author to make the work a 
satisfactory and desirable textbook and guide, and he confidently presents 
this edition as having more claims on the attention of the student and 
practitioner than previous editions, or any other work on the subject. 

E. Myers. 

Springfield, Ohio, January 1, 1908. 



PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. 



The unprecedented exhaustion of three large editions in so short a time 
has practically demonstrated the esteem in which the Champion Text=Book 
has been held by the profession. 

The period of nearly four years, which has elapsed since the first edition 
appeared, at the present rate of progress in all the departments of em- 
balming, makes thorough revision and numerous additions necessary to 
keep up with the times. 

In the second and third editions, issued three and two years ago respec- 
tively, inadvertencies and errors were corrected, though no attempt was 
made at general revision. 

The work has now been thoroughly revised and almost wholly rewritten, 
with much new matter added and many new features introduced. The 
volume is materially increased in size, the type new, the letters and num- 
bers on the plates designating the important parts are enlarged, with a 
number of new plates added, which is a very necessary and valuable 
feature. The paper is equal to or even better than that of the former 
editions. 

The thoroughly practical character of the work has been maintained, as 
far as possible, throughout, as a guide in the operations necessary for the 
embalming of all kinds of bodies for preservation and disinfection. 

In the new matter will be found a Compendium of Practical Questions 
and* Answers, covering all the more important subjects, which will mate- 
rially aid the student in his comprehension of the same. 

The Practical Dictionary will prove convenient and useful in giving 
definitions of words of an unusual or technical character. 

The following books have been especially helpful in the work of 
revision, in addition to those for which acknowledgment hus been made 
heretofore : " Bacteria and Their Products," Woodhead ; "The Principles 
of Bacteriology," Hueppe; "The Story of the Bacteria," Prudden ; "Phys- 
iological Chemistry," Novy; Standard Dictionary; Gould's Medical Dic- 
tionary, etc. 

The Authok. 
Spkingficld, Ohio, October 1, 1900. 



PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. 



The ernbalmers and funeral directors of this country have made fre- 
quent complaints that they were unable to find, in books on embalming 
heretofore published, such information as they desire on numerous topics 
of professional inquiry, especially those which have been the subject of 
recent investigation or introduction. 

To meet this confessed demand for a work of more modern character 
along this line, the preparation of the Champion Text=Book on Embalming 
was undertaken. 

The purpose of the author has been to supply, within the compass of a 
single volume of moderate size, the information necessary to a full un- 
derstanding of the subjects belonging properly to the science and art of 
embalming. 

This work is intended both as a textbook for the student and a com- 
plete reference book for the embalmer. To meet these ends, we have 
endeavored to furnish that information which our teaching and long ex- 
perience in the practice of embalming have suggested to us to be the most 
needful to the student and practitioner. We have treated of anatomy and 
physiology to the extent necessary to give a good understanding of the 
structure and functions of the body, thus laying a sure foundation for the 
successful study and practice of embalming. After tracing the history of 
tins art from ancient times down through the intervening ages, the most 
modern, simplest, and best methods have been clearly set forth. Morbid 
anatomy and the treatment of special diseases, including those which give 
the embalmer the most trouble, are much more fully considered than in 
any similar work, thus adding largely to the value of the Text=Book. The 
best and latest information concerning sanitation, disinfection, infection, 
and bacteriology, is also set forth in a terse and practical form, while much 
useful information is given on other subjects. 

The very comprehensive Glossary, at the conclusion of the work, cannot 
but prove helpful to both student and practitioner ; while, within the com- 
pass of the General Index, lias been included every term and subject on 
which information is likely to be sought. 

We have appropriated to our use many important facts found in the 
works constituting the physician's library, that have a direct bearing upon 
the subjects of which we treat ; but, nevertheless, we have relied chiefly 
upon our own observations and experiences, especially in the operations 
and methods of treatment given. 



V] 



PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION 



We have made it a rule to write pointedly and briefly, without unnec- 
essary verbiage, or circumlocution, on all subjects treated; and, where it 
could be done without sacrificing clearness or accuracy, have practiced 
careful abridgement of the text. As far as possible technical terms have 
been eliminated. Where it has been necessary to introduce them, they have 
been placed in the Glossary, with a clear, concise definition. 

Our illustrations are of a preeminent character, much superior to any 
hitherto published in a similar work, and will add greatly to an elucidation 
of the text and a proper understanding of the methods taught. 

We are especially indebted to the works of the following authors in the 
preparation of this book: 

Anatomy: — Gbay ; Potter. 

Physiology: — Flint; Steele; Baldwin; Huxley. 

Morbid Anatomy and Pathology: — Flint ; Oslbe ; Stille ; Beistowe ; Aitken; 
Qdain ; Green : Peper's System. 

Bacteriology and Sanitation: — Sternberg ; Abbott; Sykes. 



Springfield, Ohio, January 1. 1897. 



The Author. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Portrait of Author Frontispiece 

Preface to Fourth Revised Edition , iii 

Preface to First Edition v 

Table of Contents vii 

List of Illustrations xxv 

PART FIRST. 

ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY 1 

Introduction to Part First 3 

Chapter I. — Osteology 4 

General Description of the Bones 4 

Number of Bones • 4 

The Distribution of the Bones 4 

Classification of Bones 5 

The Long Bones 5 

The Short Bones 5 

The Flat Bones 5 

The Irregular Bones 6 

The Composition of Bones G 

The Structure of Bones 6 

Fresh or living bones 6 

The Lacunae 7 

Development of Bone 7 

Injury and Repair of Bones 7 

Bones of the Head 8 

The Bones of the Skull and Face 8 

The Skull Bones 8 

The Cranial Cavity 8 

Bones of the Trunk 8 

The Trunk 8 

The Spinal Column 8 

A. The Bones — Anatomical Plates 9-24 

The Ribs 25 

The Innominata 25 

The Extremities 25 

Bones of the Upper Extremity 26 

The Shoulder 26 

The Scapula 26 

The Shoulder Joint 26 

The Elbow 26 

The Carpus 26 

The Hand 26 

Bones of the Lower Extremity 26 

The Femur 26 

The Knee-Joint 26 

The Fibia 26 



Vlll 



CHAMPIOX TEXT-BOOK OX EM BALM I NG 



Chapter I. — Osteology — Continued. page 

Bones of the Lower Extremity — Continued. 

The Foot 27 

Sesamoid Bones 27 

Wormian Bones 27 

The Joints 27 

Articulations 27 

The Structures 27 

Articular Lamella 27 

Cartilage 28 

Fibro-cartilage 28 

Synovial Membrane 28 

The Ligaments 28 

Poupart's Ligament 28 

B. The Ligaments — Anatomical Plates 29-36 

Chapter II. — The Muscles 37 

Composition of Muscles 37 

Contractility 38 

Kinds of Muscles 38 

Arrangement of Muscles 38 

Modification of Muscles 39 

Attachment of Muscles 39 

Classification 39 

The Tendons 39 

Aponeurosis 40 

Fasciae 40 

Superficial Fascia 40 

C. The Muscles — Anatomical Plates .'/l-oG 

Deep fascia 57 

Wonders of the Muscles 57 

Muscular Sense 57 

Development of the Muscles 57 

Number of Muscles 5S 

The Sternocleidomastoid 58 

The Biceps 58 

The Sartorius 59 

The Adductor Longus 59 

The Diaphragm 59 

Scarpa's Triangle 60 

The Popliteal Space 60 

Axillary. Space 60 

Chapter III. — The Absorbents 61 

The Skin 61 

Structure of the Skin 61 

Cuticle, Epidermis, Scarf-skin 61 

Corium, Derma, Cutis Vera 62 

Rete Mucosum 63 

Uses of the Skin 63 

The Mucous Membrane 64 

Subcutaneous Tissues 64 

The Hair 65 

The Nails 66 

The Lymphatic System 67 

The Lymphatics 67 

The Lacteals 68 



TABLE OF CONTENTS ix 

Chapter III. — The Absorbents — Continued. page 

The Lymphatic System — Continued. 

The Villi 68 

The Lymphatic Glands 69 

The Thoracic Duct 69 

The Lymphatic Duct 69 

The Lymph 69 

VISCERAL ANATOMY 70 

Chapter IV. — The Nervous System 71 

General Description 71 

Nervous Tissue 71 

The Nerves 71 

Nerve-Current 72 

Nerve-Sensations 72 

The Sympathetic System 73 

The Cerebrospinal System 73 

The Cranial Cavity 73 

The Brain 73 

The Cerebrum 75 

The Cerebellum "75 

The Medulla Oblongata 76 

The Spinal Cord 76 

D. The Heart — Anatomical Plates 77-80 

The Cranial Nerves 81 

Chapter V. — The Organs of Respiration 82 

Mouth and Nose 82 

The Pharynx or Throat 83 

The Larynx 83 

Glottis and Epiglottis 84 

Vocal Cords 84 

The Thoracic Cavity 84 

The Thorax or Chest 84 

The 1 rachea or Windpipe 84 

The Bronchi 86 

The Lungs 86 

The Structure of the Lungs 87 

The Pleura? 88 

The Mediastinum 88 

Chapter VI. — The Digestive Organs 89 

The Alimentary Canal 89 

The Mouth 89 

The Salivary Glands 89 

The Tongue 91 

The Teeth 91 

The Jaws 91 

The Pharynx 92 

The Esophagus 92 

The Abdominal Cavity 92 

The Abdomen or Belly 92 

E. Thoracic and Abdominal Viscera with their Blood-Vessels — Ana- 

tomical Color Plates 93-108 

Abdominal Openings 109 

Abdominal Viscera 109 

Regions of the Abdomen 109 

The Regional Contents 109 



X CHAMPIOX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

Chapter VI. — Tiik Digestive Organs — Continued page 

The Abdominal Cavity — Continued. 

Right Hypochondriac 109 

Epigastric 110 

Left Hypochondriac 110 

Right Lumbar 110 

Umbilical 110 

Left Lumbar 11 

Right Inguinal 11 

Hypogastric 11 

Left Inguinal 11 

The Stomach 11 

The Fundus 112 

The Pylorus 112 

The Peptic or Gastric Glands 113 

The Small Intestine 113 

The Duodenum 113 

The Jejunum Ill 

The Ileum 114 

The Large Intestine 114 

The Cecum 114 

The Appendix Vermiformis 115 

The Colon 115 

The Sigmoid Flexure 115 

The Rectum 115 

The Liver 115 

Hepatic Lobules 117 

The Bile 117 

The Biliary Ducts 117 

The Hepatic Duct 117 

The Cystic Duct 117 

The Ductus Communis Choledochus US 

The Gail-Bladder US 

The Pancreas 118 

The Pancreatic Duct US 

Ductless Glands 118 

The Spleen 118 

The Thyroid Gland or Body 119 

The Thymus Gland 119 

The Suprarenal Capsules 119 

The Kidneys 119 

The Ureters 120 

The Peritoneum 120 

Peritoneal Sacs 121 

The Omenta 121 

The Mesenteries 121 

The Pelvic Cavity 121 

The Bladder 122 

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 123 

Organs of Circulation 123 

Circulatory Systems 123 

Chapter VII. — The Heart and Blood 124 

The Heart 124 

The Pericardium 125 

The Endocardium 125 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xi 

Chapter VII. — The Heart and Blood — Continued. page 

The Heart — Continued. 

Heart's Weight and Size 125 

Its Cavities 125 

The Right Auricle 126 

The Right Ventricle 126 

The Left Auricle 127 

The Left Ventricle 127 

Valves of the Heart 127 

Its Movements and Sounds 128 

Its Capacity 129. 

The Blood 129 

Composition of Blood 129 

The Circulation of the Blood 130 

Chapter VIII. — The Blood-Vessels 132 

The Arteries 132 

The Large Trunks 132 

The Main Artery 132 

Arterial Anastamosis 133 

Accompanying Vessels 133 

Vasa Vasorum 133 

Their Coats 133 

The Veins 134 

Venous Anastomosis 135 

Venous Coats 135 

Venous Valves 135 

Kinds of Veins 136 

Deep Veins 136 

Superficial or peripheral Veins 136 

The Sinuses 136 

The Capillaries 137 

Where Found 137 

Their Walls 137 

Chapter IX. — Arteries of the Systematic Circulation 138 

The Aorta 138 

The Branches of the Aorta 138 

The Coronary Arteries 138 

The Innominate 139 

The Common Carotid 139 

The External Carotid 140 

The Superior Thyroid 140 

The Linguinal , 140 

The Facial 140 

The Occipital 140 

The Posterior Auricular 140 

The Ascending Pharyngeal 140 

The Temporal 140 

The Internal Maxillary 140 

The Internal Carotid 140 

P. Blood-Vessels of the Head, Neck, etc. — Anatomical Color Plates. 1J/1-156 

The Tympanic 157 

The Arterise Receptaculi 157 

The Anterior Meningeal 157 

The Opthalmic 157 

The Posterior Communicating 157 



xii CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Chapter IX. — Arteries oe the Systematic Circulation — Continued. 

The Internal Carotid — Continued. page 

The Anterior Choroid 157 

The Anterior Cerebral 157 

The Middle Cerebral 157 

The Subclavian 157 

The Vertebral 157 

The Basilar 157 

The Circle of Willis 15S 

The Thyroid Axis 158 

The Inferior Thyroid 15S 

The Transversalis Colli 15S 

The Suprascapular 15S 

The Internal Mammary 158 

The Superior Intercostal 158 

The Axillary 158 

The Brachial 158 

The Radial 159 

The Ulnar 159 

The Superficial Palmar Arch 159 

The Deep Palmar Arch 159 

The Thoracic Aorta 1G0 

The Pericardiac 1G0 

The Bronchial 1G0 

The Esophageal 160 

The Posterior Mediastinals 160 

The Intercostals 160 

The Abdominal Aorta 160 

The Phrenic 160 

The Celiac Axis 160 

The Gastric 160 

The Hepatic ICO 

The Splenic 160 

The Superior Mesenteric 162 

The Inferior Mesenteric 162 

The Suprarenal 162 

The Renal 162 

The Spermatics 162 

The Ovarian 162 

The Lumbar 162 

The Middle Sacral 162 

The Common Iliacs 162 

The Internal Iliac 162 

The Anterior Trunk (of Internal Iliac) 162 

The Superior Vesical 162 

The Middle Vesical 163 

The Inferior Vesical 163 

The Middle Hemorrhoidal 163 

The Uterine 163 

The Vaginal 163 

The Obturator 163 

The Internal Pudic 163 

The Sciatic 163 

The Posterior Trunk (of Internal Iliac) 163 

The Iliolumbar 163 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii 

Chapter IX. — Arteries of the Systemic Circulation — Continued. 

The Posterior Trunk (of Internal Iliac). page 

The Lateral Sacral 163 

The Gluteal 163 

The External Iliac 163 

The Deep Epigastric 164 

The Deep Circumflex Iliac ,,\ 164 

The Femoral .,. 164 

The Superficial Epigastric , 164 

The Superficial Circumflex Iliac . . . . 164 

G. Blood-Vessels of Peroneal Regions and Lower Extremities — Ana- 
tomical Color Plates 165-172 

The Superficial External Pudic K 173 

The Deep External Pudic 173 

The Profunda Femoris 173 

The External Circumflex 173 

The Internal Circumflex 173 

The Perforating 173 

The Muscular Branches 173 

The Anastomica Magna 173 

The Popliteal 173 

The Anterior Tibial 174 

The Dorsal Pedis 174 

The Posterior Tibial 174 

The Internal Plantar 174 

The External Plantar 174 

Chapter X. — Veins of the Systemic Circulation 175 

Veins of the Head and Neck 175 

The External Veins of the Head 175 

The Facial 175 

The Temporal 175 

The Internal Maxillary 175 

The Temporomaxillary 175 

The Posterior Auricular 176 

The Occipital 176 

The Veins of the Diploe 176 

The Cerebral Veins 176 

The Superficial Cerebral 176 

The Deep Cerebral 176 

The Cerebellar 176 

The Sinuses of the Dura Mater 176 

The Superior Longitudinal 176 

The Inferior Longitudinal 177 

The Strait 177 

The Lateral 177 

The Occipital 177 

The Sinuses of the Base of the Skull 177 

The Cavernous 177 

The Circular 177 

The Transverse 177 

The Inferior Petrosal 177 

The Superior Petrosal 178 

The Veins of the Neck 178 

The External Jugular 178 

The Posterior External Jugular 178 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EM HALVING 

Chapter X. — Veins of the Systemic Circulation — Continued. 

page 

The Anterior Jugular 179 

The Internal Jugular , 179 

The Vertebral 179 

The Veins of the Upper Extremities 179 

The Superficial Veins 179 

The Anterior Ulnar 179 

The Posterior Ulnar 179 

The Common Ulnar 179 

The Radial 180 

The Median 180 

The Median Cephalic 180 

The Median Basilic 180 

The Basilic 180 

The Cephalic 180 

The Deep Veins of the Upper Extremities 180 

Two Digital Veins 180 

The Deep Palmar Veins 18 

The Axillary 18 

The Subclavian 18 

The Innominates 18 

The Superior Vena Cava 18 

The Principal Veins of the Thorax 182 

The Azygos Veins 182 

The Right Azygos 182 

The Left Lower Azygos 182 

The Left Upper Azygos 182 

The Spinal Veins 182 

The Veins of the Lower Extremities 182 

The Principal Superficial Veins 182 

The Internal Saphenous 183 

The External Saphenous 183 

The Deep Veins of the Lower Extremities 184 

The External and Internal Plantars 184 

The Anterior Tibials 184 

The Popliteal 184 

The Femoral 184 

The External Iliac 184 

The Internal Iliac 184 

The Common Iliacs 184 

The Inferior Vena Cava 185 

The Cardiac Veins • • • • 185 

Chapter XI. — The Other Circulatory Systems 186 

The Lesser or Pulmonary Circulation 186 

The Pulmonary Artery 186 

The Pulmonary Veins 1S6 

The Pulmonary Capillaries 187 

The Portal System of Veins 188 

The Portal Vein 188 

The Inferior Mesenteric 188 

Portal, and Fetal Systems. — Anatomical Color Plates 189-192 

The Superior Mesentric 193 

The Splenic 193 

The Gastrics 193 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xv 

Chapter XI. — The Other Circulatory Systems — Continued. 

PAGE 

The Fetal Circulation 193 

The Placenta 194 

The Foramen Ovale 195 

The Eustachian Valve 195 

The Umbilical or Hypogastric Arteries 195 

The Umbilical Vein 196 

The Ductus Arteriosus 196 

The Ductus Venosus 196 

The Umbilical Cord 196 

Placental Circulation 196 

Chapter XII. — The Organs of Special Senses 198 

The Eye 198 

The Eyeball 198 

The Tunics 199 

The Sclerotic 199 

The Cornea 199 

The Choroid 199 

The Iris 199 

The Retina 200 

Chambers of the Eye 200 

The Aqueous Humor 200 

The Vitreous Humor 200 

The Crystalline Lens '. 201 

The Lachrymal Apparatus 201 

Appendages of the Eye 201 

The Ear 202 

The External Ear 202 

The Middle Ear 203 

The Internal Ear 203 

The Nose 204 

Organs of Taste and Touch 204 

The Tongue 204 

The Skin 205 

Chapter XIII. — The Body: Its Composition and Chemistry 206 

Weight of the Different Parts 206 

The Chemical Constituents 206 

Chief Chemical Compounds of the Body 207 

Fats 207 

Carbohydrates 208 

Proteins 209 

Saliva 210 

Gastric Juice 211 

Pancreatic Juice 212 

Bile 213 

Blood 213 

Milk 215 

Urea 215 

PART SECOND 

MODERN AND PRESENT EMBALMING 217 

Chapter XIV.— Ancient Embalming 218 

Egyptian Methods 219 

Reasons for Embalming 220 



xvi CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Chapter XIV. — Ancient Embalming — Continued. page 

Embalmers of the Medical Fraternity 221 

Selecting the Pattern 221 

Removing the Brain 222 

Incising the Body 22". 

Treatment of the Viscera 224 

Ingredients used 224 

The Mummy Wrappings 225 

The Cartonnage 22.". 

Treatment of the Intestines 227 

Classes of Embalming 228 

An Intermediate Mode 228 

When Embalming Ceased 229 

Jewish Methods 229 

Like Those of Egypt 230 

Embalming the Poor 231 

In the Time of Chris' 2:11 

Methods of Romans and Other Xati as 232 

Among the Romans 232 

The Babylonians 232 

The Scythians 232 

The Ethiopians 232 

Among Persians, Assyrians, etc 232 

The Greeks 232 

The Gaunches 232 

On the Western Hemisphere 233 

Among Early Peruvians 233 

The Aztecs 233 

North American Indians 233 

Among Early Christians 234 

Chapter XV. — Modern Embalming 235 

Dr. Frederick Ruysch 2:;". 

Dr. William Hunter 23G 

John Hunter 237 

The Hunterian Method 237 

M. Boudet's Process 238 

M. Franchini's Process 238 

Jean Nicholas Gannal 238 

Dr. Gannal 239 

M. Sucquet 240 

M. Falcony 240 

Dr. Chaussier's Method 241 

Franciolla's Method 241 

Brunetti 242 

A Method in Vogue in Belgium 242 

Dr. Tscheirnoff's Method 243 

The Florentine Process 244 

A German Process 244 

Embalming but little practiced in England 245 

Xo Good Embalming Done Abroad 24(1 

Chapter XVI. — Peesent Methods of Embalming 24s 

The Methods of To-day 24s 

Preservation as a Reason 250 

Sanitation as a Reason 251 

Necessity for a Thorough Embalmment 252 



TABLE OF CONTENTS X vii 

Chapter XVI. — Present Methods of Embalming — Continued. page 

The Condition, Appearance, and Disease 253 

Appearance After Thorough Embalmment 253 

Chapter XVII. — Death: Its Modes, Signs, and Changes 256 

Modes of Death 256 

Syncope 257 

Apnea, Asphyxia 257 

Coma 260 

Signs of Death 261 

Cessation of the Heart's Action 261 

Cessation of Respiration 262 

Loss of Vitality 263 

Changes of Death 264 

Cooling of the Body 264 

Hypostasis, or Post-Mortem Discoloration 264 

Post-Mortem Staining 265 

Rigor Mortis 265 

Summary of the Signs of Death 267 

Chapter XVIII. — Putrefaction: Its Modifications and Peculi- 
arities 269 

Adipocere 272 

"Skin-Slip": Its Causes and Prevention 273 

Its Causes 273 

Its Prevention 274 

Chapter XIX. — The Blood : Its Characteristics and Changes . . . 275 

Composition of Blood 275 

Circulation of Blood 276 

Coagulation of the Blood 276 

Causes of Arteries Being Empty After Death 279 

Circulation of Fluid 279 

Chapter XX. — Arterial Embalming 283 

Raising and Injecting Arteries 283 

Selection of the Artery 283 

To Distinguish the Artery 284 

Raising and Incising the Artery 285 

The Injection of Fluid 286 

A Second Injection 287 

The Brachial Artery and the Basilic Vein 289 

Location 289 

The Linear Guide 289 

The Anatomical Guide 289 

To Raise the Artery 289 

To Raise the Basilic Vein 290 

The Femoral Artery and Vein 290 

Location 290 

The Linear Guide 291 

The Anatomical Guide 291 

To Raise the Artery 291 

To Raise the Vein 292 

The Common Carotid Artery and Internal Jugular Vein 292 

Location 294 

The Linear Guide 294 

Anatomical Guide 294 

To Raise the Artery 294 

To Raise The Jugular Vein 295 



xviii CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Chapter XX. — Arterial Embalming — Continued page 

The Radial Artery, Location 295 

The Anatomical Guide 295 

To Raise the Artery 296 

The Posterior and Anterior Tibial Artery, Location 296 

The Guide to the Posterior Tibia 296 

To Raise the Artery 296 

The Guide to the Anterior Tibia 297 

To Raise the Artery 297 

The Axillary Artery 297 

The Linear Guide 297 

To Raise the Axillary Artery 297 

Chapter XXI. — Cavity Embalming 298 

Necessity for Cavity Embalming 298 

Sterilizing Effete Matter 298 

The Thoracic Cavity. Location and Contents 300 

To Inject the Pleural Sacs 302 

To Inject Fluid into the Lung Cavities 304 

Gases in the Pleurae and Pericardium 305 

The Abdominal Cavity 305 

Its Regions 305 

Position of Its Contents 307 

Organs Requiring Special Treatment 308 

The Stomach 310 

Its Dilation 310 

Its Contraction 311 

Chapter XXII. — Cranial Embalming — So-called Needle Pro- 

CESSES 312 

The Eye Process 312 

The Operation 312 

The Barnes Process 313 

The Operation 313 

The Nasal Process 314 

The Operation 314 

Embalming Through Soft Tissues on Outside of Skeleton 315 

The Operation 315 

Chapter XXIII. — Removal of the Blood 317 

Reasons for Its Removal 317 

The Methods 317 

From the Heart Direct 317 

Another Method 321 

Through the Basilic Vein 322 

Through the Femoral Vein 322 

Through the Jugular Vein 323 

Circulation Not Destroyed by Tapping the Heart 324 

Chapter XXIV. — Discolorations and Their Removal 325 

To Remove Venous Congestion 325 

Flushing of the Face 325 

Post-Mortem Discoloration, or Hypostasis 327 

Post-Mortem Staining 328 

Brownish or Greenish Spots 328 

Bruises and Ecchymoses 328 

Discoloration Caused by Biliverdin 329 

Bleachers and Fluids Not Effective 329 

The Ice Mixture 330 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xix 

Chapter XXV. — Gases: Their Production and Elimination.... 331 

What They Are 331 

Where Found 331 

How Eliminated 332 

Purging and Its Treatment 333 

Purging from the Stomach 333 

Treatment 334 

Purging from the Lungs 334 

Treatment 335 

PART THIRD. 

MORBID ANATOMY AND TREATMENT OF SPECIAL DISEASES.. 337 

Introduction to Part Third 338 

Chapter XXVI. — Diseases Affecting the Vascular System 339 

Diseases of the Arteries, Weakening the Walls and Causing 

Aneurisms 339 

Treatment 342 

Diseases of the Heart and Blood-Vessels Affecting the Circu- 
lation 342 

Treatment 344 

Valvular Diseases of the Heart 345 

Treatment 346 

Chapter XXVII. — Infectious and Contagious Diseases 347 

Scarlatina — Scarlet Fever 347 

Treatment 349 

Diphtheria 350 

Treatment 352 

Typhoid Fever 353 

Treatment 355 

Typhus Fever 357 

Hospital, Jail, Camp, and Ship Fever 357 

Treatment 358 

Measles 359 

Treatment 359 

Tuberculosis — Consumption 360' 

Treatment 361 

Tubercular Meningitis 362 

Treatment 364 

Scrofula 364 

Tuberculosis of the Lymphatic Glands 364 

Treatment 365 

Cerebrospinal Meningitis — Spotted Fever 365 

Treatment 367 

Chapter XXVIII. — Infectious and Contagious Diseases — Cont... 36S 
Smallpox 368 

Treatment 369 

Cholera, Asiatic 370 

Treatment 373 

Yellow Fever 373 

Treatment 375 

Bubonic Plague 375 

Treatment 376 



xx CHAM PI OX TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Chapter XXVIII — Infectious and Contagious Diseases. — Con- 
tinued PAGE 

Tetanus — Lockjaw 377 

Tetanus Neonatorum 377 

Treatment 378 

Anthrax — Splenic Fever 378 

Wool-Sorters' Disease — Rag-Pickers' Disease 380 

Treatment 380 

Syphilis 381 

Treatment 381 

Syphilitic Disease of the Lungs 382 

Treatment 383 

Chapter XXIX. — Diseases Affecting the Blood 385 

Septicemia — Blood Poison 385 

Treatment 386 

Pyemia 387 

Treatment 388 

Erysipelas 389 

Treatment 390 

Purpura 391 

Treatment 393 

Leukemia 393 

Treatment 395 

Puerperal or Childbed Fever 396 

Treatment 397 

Peritonitis 398 

Treatment 399 

Chapter XXX. — Diseases of the Air Passages and Chest 400 

Pneumonia — Lung Fever 400 

Acute or Croupous Pneumonia — Pneumonitis 400 

Treatment 402 

Gangrene of the Lungs 403 

Treatment 403 

Pleurisy — Pleuritis 404 

Inflammation of the Pleura 404 

Treatment 406 

Pericarditis 406 

Inflammation of the Pericardium 406 

Treatment 408 

Hypostatic Congestion of the Lungs 409 

Hypostatic Pneumonia — Splenization 409 

Treatment 409 

Anemia of the Lungs 410 

Treatment 412 

Other Diseases of the Air-Passages and Chest 412 

Laryngitis, Bronchitis, etc 412 

Chapter XXXI. — Diseases of the Digestive System 413 

Appendicitis 413 

Inflammation of the Appendix Vermiforis 413 

Treatment 414 

Obstinate Constipation 415 

Treatment 416 

Dysentery— Flux 41(5 

Treatment 417 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XX J 

Chapter XXXI. — Diseases of the Digestive System — Continued. 

PAGE 

Cholera Infantum 418 

Treatment 418 

Hernia or Rupture 418 

Treatment „ . . . 418 

' Jaundice 418 

Treatment 419 

Intestinal Catarrh 420 

Treatment 421 

Sporadic Cholera — Cholera Morbus 422 

Treatment 422 

Other Diseases of the Alimentary Canal 423 

Gastritis, Enteritis, Colitis, and Entercolitis 423 

Treatment 423 

Chapter XXXII. — Diseases of the Kidneys and Bladder 424 

Bright's Disease 424 

Acute Bright's Disease 424 

Waxy Bright's Disease 424 

Cirrhotic Bright's Disease 425 

Treatment 426 

Nephritis 427 

Inflammation of the Kidney 427 

Diabetes 427 

Sugar in the Urine 427 

Treatment 428 

Diseases of the Bladder 428 

Treatment 428 

Chapter XXXIII.— Diseases of the Nerves 429 

Paralysis 429 

Treatment 430 

Apoplexy — Cerebral Hemorrhage 431 

Treatment 433 

Chapter XXXIV. — Cancerous and Constitutional Diseases 434 

Malignant Tumors. — Cancer 434 

Treatment 434 

Cancer of the Stomach 434 

Treatment 436 

Cancer of the Liver 436 

Treatment 437 

Benign Tumors 438 

Treatment 438 

Dropsy 439 

Treatment 440 

Rheumatism 442 

Treatment 443 

Chapter XXXV. — Death from Accidental Causes 444 

Post-Mortem Cases 444 

Treatment 444 

Drowned Cases 447 

Treatment 447 

A "Floater" '. 448 

Treatment 448 

Lightning or Electricity , 449 

Treatment 449 



xxii CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Chapter XXXV. — Death from Accidental Causes — Continued. page 

Cases of Mutilation 450 

Railroad and Other Accidents 450 

Treatment 450 

Gunshot Wounds 452 

Treatment 452 

Asphyxia 453 

Treatment 454 

Death from Freezing 454 

Treatment 455 

Chapter XXXVI. — Death from Poison 456 

Corrosive Poisons 457 

Irritant Poisons 458 

Narcotic Poisons 459 

Treatment 460 

Opium or Morphin Poisoning 460 

Treatment 460 

Poisoning by Arsenic 462 

Treatment 463 

Poisoning by Mercury 463 

Acute Mercurial Poisoning 463 

Treatment 464 

Chronic Mercurial Poisoning — Mercurialism 465 

Treatment 465 

Poisoning by Carbonic Acid 466 

Treatment 466 

Poisoning by Carbonic Oxid 4G7 

Treatment 467 

Poisoning by Coal Gas 468 

Treatment 469 

Chapter XXXVII. — Miscellaneous Diseases 470 

Chronic Alcoholism 470 

Treatment 471 

Acute Alcoholism 471 

Treatment 472 

Delirium Tremens 472 

Treatment 472 

Jaundice of the New-Born 47:1 

Treatment 474 

Death of Mother and Fetus in Utero 475 

Treatment 475 

Senility or Old Age 476 

Treatment 477 

Gangrene — Mortification 47S 

Senile Gangrene 478 

Treatment 479 

Sunstroke .' 479 

Treatment 480 

PART FOURTH. 

BACTERIOLOGY, SANITATION, AND DISINFECTION 481 

Introduction to Part Fourth 482 

Chapter XXXVIII.— Bacteriology 483 

History of Bacteriology 483 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xxiii 

PAGE 

Bacteria: Their Forms and Growth 488 

Bacteria in Air, Water, and Earth 494 

Chapter XXXIX. — Infection and Contagion 497 

Channels of Infection 498 

Susceptibility and Immunity 499 

Chapter XL. — Disinfection and Its Effects 501 

Deodorants : — Deodorizers 507 

Chapter XLI. — Antiseptics and Disinfectants 509 

Antiseptics 509 

Disinfectants 510 

Chapter XLII. — Disinfection of Rooms and their Contents.... 515 

Sulphur Fumes (Sulphur Dioxid) 518 

Formaldehyde Gas 520 

To Disinfect with Schering's Pastilles 523 

Formalin Distillation 524 

Novy's Formaldehyde Gas Generator 525 

Chapter XLIII. — Transportation of Bodies 528 

The Shipping Rules 529 

Comments Upon the Rules 532 

PART FIFTH. 

GENERAL MISCELLANY 541 

Introduction to Part Fifth 542 

Chapter XLIV. — Hints on Funeral Directing 543 

Chapter XLV. — Resuscitation 547 

Howard's Method of Artificial Respiration 547 

Action of Operator 548 

Rules of Royal Humane Society 548 

Rule I. — If from Drowning or Other Suffocation or Nar- 
cotic Poisoning , 548 

Treatment to Restore Natural Breathing 548 

First. — To Maintain a Free Entrance of Air into the Wind- 
pipe 548 

Second. — To Adjust the Patient's Position 549 

Third. — To Imitate the Movements of Breathing 549 

Fourth. — To Excite Inspiration 549 

Treatment After the Natural Breathing Has Been Restored.. 550 

Fifth.— To Induct Circulation and Warmth 550 

Rule II. — If From Intense Cold 550 

Rule III. — If from Intoxication 550 

Rule IV. — If from Apoplexy or Sunstroke 550 

Syncope and Asphyxia 550 

Syncope 551 

Treatment 551 

Asphyxia from Breathing Noxious Gases 551 

Asphyxia from Mechanical Obstruction of the Air-Passages. 551 
Asphyxia from Advancing Coma or from Narcotics and 

Anesthetics 551 

Asphyxia from Drowning 552 

1. Position of Patient 552 

2. Position and Action of Operator 552 

3. Suspended Animation from Lightning Stroke or 
Electricity 552 

Chapter XLVI. — Post-Mobtem Wounds 554 



XXIV 



CHAMPIOX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALM IX G 



PAGE 

Chapter XLVII. — Instruments: Their Selection and Care 557 

Sterilizing Instruments 558 

Selecting Instruments 559 

Absurdities Taught in Embalming 561 

COMPENDIUM OF PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 565 

Introduction 566 

I. Anatomy and Physiology 567 

Bones, Muscles, etc 567 

Visceral Anatomy 570 

Nervous System 572 

Respiratory Organs 575 

Organs of Digestion 577 

The Circulatory System 580 

Arteries 585 

Veins 589 

II. Embalming 591 

III. Sanitation and Disinfection 607 

A PRACTICAL DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND MEDICAL 

TERMS 617 

Introduction 61S 

GENERAL INDEX 655 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 



Portrait of Author. M^ontistnece 

ANATOMICAL HALFTONES AND COLOR PLATES. 

PLATE. PAGE. 

A. The Bones — Seven Plates 9-%/f. 

I. BONES OF THE SKELETON 10 

II. BONES OF THE HEAD 12 

Fig. 1— Front View of Cranium. Fig. 2— Side View of Cranium. 
Figs. 3 aud 4— Vertical Sectiou of Facial Bones. Fig. 5 — 
Ethmoid Bone— Upper Surface. Fig. 6— Ethmoid Bone — 
Nasal Surface. Fig. 7— Palate Bone— Nasal Surface. Fig. 
8 — Hyoid Bone — Anterior Aspect. 

III. BONES OF THE HEAD— Continued 14 

Fig. 1— Base of Skull— Inner Surface. Fig. 2— Inferior Surface 
of Cranium— Base of Skull. Figs. 3 aud 4— Temporal Bone 
— External Surface (3); Inner Surface (4). Figs. 5 and 6 — 
Sphenoid Bone— Inner Surface (5); Anterior Surface (6). 
Figs. 7 and 8 — Inferior Maxillary— Outer Surface (7); Inner 
Surface (8). 

IV. BONES OF TRUNK 16 

Fig. 1— Spine (vertebrae), Thorax, Clavicle, and Portion of Scap- 
ula. Fig. 2— Pelvis. Fig. 3— True or Sternal Ribs. Fig. 4— 
Sternum— Anterior Surface. Fig. 5 — Os Innominatum of 
Right Side — Inner Surface. Fig. 6— Os Innominatum of 
Left Side— Outer Surface. Figs. 7 and 8— Os Coccygis — 
Posterior Surface (7); Anterior and Upper Surfaces (8). 

V. BONES OF TRUNK— Continued 18 

Fig. 1— Posterior View of Trunk. Figs. 2 aud 3— Atlas and Axis 
— Anterior Surface (2) ; Posterior Surface (3). Figs. 4 and 5— 
Atlas— Superior Surface (4); Inferior Surface (5). Fig. 6 — 
Axis— Anterior Surface. Fig. 7— Cervical Vertebra -Su- 
perior Surface. Figs. 8 aud 9 — A Dorsal (8) and a Lumbar 
Vertebra (9)— Superior Surfaces. 

VI. BONES OF UPPER EXTREMITIES 20 

Figs. 1 aud 2— Clavicle (left)— Superior Surface (1 ); Inferior Sur- 
face (2). Fig. 3— Scapula— Posterior and Outer Surface. 
Fig. 4— Scapula — Internal or Concave Surface. Fig. 5 — 
Scapula— Front View of Anterior Margin. Fig„6— Humerus 
(left)— Posterior View. Fig. 7 — Humerus (left)— Anterior 
View. Figs. 8 and 9— Ulna— Posterior View (8); Anterior 
View (9). Figs. 10 and 11— Radius— Anterior View (10); 



XXV 



xxv i CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

PLATE. PAGK 

VI. BOXES OF UPPER EXTREMITIES — Continued. 

Posterior View (11). Fig. 12— Bones of Bight Hand— Pos- 
terior Surface. Figs. 13 and 14— Carpus, Metacarpus, and 
Phalanges of.Thunib (left)— Posterior Surface (13); Anterior 
Surface ( 14). Fig. 15 and 17— Carpal Bones (left ), First Bow 
—Superior Articular Surface (15); Inferior Surface (17). 
Fig. 16 and IS— Carpal Bones (left), Second Bow— Intercar- 
pal Articular Surface (16); Digital Surface (18). 

VE. BONES OF LOWER EXTREMITIES 2 ' 

Fig. 1— Femur (left) -Anterior Surface. Fig. 2 - Femur (left) — 
Posterior Surface. Figs. 3 and 4— Left Patella (Kneecap) - 
Anterior Surface (3); Posterior Surface (4). Figs. 5 and 6.— 
Tibia (left)— Anterior and Inner Surfaces (5); Posterior Sur- 
face (6). Figs. 7 and 8— Fibula (left)— Anterior Surface (7) ; 
Posterior Surface (8). Figs. 9 and 10— Bones of Foot ( right) 
—Upper or Dorsal Surface (9); Inferior or Plantar Surface 
(10). Figs. 11 and 12— Tarsal and Metatarsal Bones (left)— 
Upper or Dorsal Surface (11 ) ; under or Plantar Surface (12). 
B. The Ligaments -Three Plates S9-S6 

VIII. LIGAMENTS OF HEAD, TRUNK, AND UPPER EXTREM- 
ITIES 30 

Fig. 1— Ligaments of the Vertebrae, Sternal End of Ribs, Pelvis, 
and Iliofemoral Articulation— Anterior Surface. Figs. 2 
and 3— Ligaments of Right Temporomaxillary Articulation 
—External Surface (2); Internal Surface (3). Figs. 4 and 5— 
Internal Ligaments Connecting Occipital Bone with Axis 
and of the Articulation Between Atlas and Axis- Posterior 
View. Figs. 6 and 7— Ligaments of Sternoclavicular and 
Sternocostal Articulation with Anterior Intercostal Liga- 
ments -Anterior Surface (6) ; Posterior Surface (7). Figs. 8 
and 9— Ligaments of Shoulder=Joiut and Scapuloclavicular 
Articulation. Figs. 10 and 11— Ligaments of Left Elbow= 
Joint— Anterior Surface (10); Posterior Surface (11). Fig. 
12— Ligaments of Left WrisfrJoint and Hand— Anterior 
Surface. Fig. 13— Ligaments of Left Wfist=Joint and Hand 
— Anterior Surface. 

LX. LIGAMENTS OF PELVIS AND ADJOINING ARTICULA- 
TIONS 82 

Ligaments of Lower Part of Spine, Pelvis, and Iliofemoral 
Articulations. 

X. LIGAMENTS OF SPINE, PELVIS, AND JOINTS OF LOWER 

EXTREMITIES 3 ^ 

Fig. 1— Ligaments of Cervical and Dorsal Vertebrae. Fig. 2— 
Dorsal Ligaments of Spinal Column, Pelvis, and Iliofemoral 
Articulation. Fig. 3— Ligaments of Left Knee-joint. Figs. 
4 and 5— Ligaments of Left Knee-Joint— Internal Anterior 
View (4); Posterior View (5). Fig. 6— Ligaments of Sole of 
Left Foot. Fig. 7— Ligaments of Left Foot— Internal Sur- 
face. Fig. 8— Ligaments of Left Foot— External and Dorsal 
Surfaces. 
C. The Muscles— Seven Plates 41-56 



LIST OF ILL USTBA TIONS xx v ji 

PLATK. PAGE. 

XL MUSCLES OF HEAD AND NECK 42 

Fig. 1 — Muscles of Face and Neck— Anterior Surfaces. Fi£\ 
2— Muscles of Neck— Right Side. Fig. 2— Muscles of 
Neck— Front View. Fig. 4— Deep Muscles of Right Side 
of Neck. 

XII. MUSCLES OF POSTERIOR PART OF NECK, TRUNK, 

PHARYNX, PALATE, LOWER JAW, AND TONGUE.. 44 

Fig. 1— Muscles of Back of Pharynx and Lower Jaw. Fig. 2 — 
Muscles of Palate and Throat— Posterior View. Fig. 8 — 
Muscles of Tongue— Lateral View of Right Side. Fig. 4 — 
Internal Muscles of Lower Jaw. Fig. 5 — Muscles of Soft 
Palate. Fig. 6— Muscles of Posterior Surface of Neck and 
Upper Part of Thorax. Fig. 7 — Deep Muscles of Neck 
and Back. 

XIII. MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK, ARMS, AND FEET 46 

Fig. 1— Muscles of Face, Trunk, Arms, and Upper Part of 
Thighs— Anterior View. Fig. 2 — Plantar Fascia or Apo- 
neurosis of Right Foot. Fig. 3— Plantar Muscles, First 
Layer— Inferior Surface, Right Foot. Fig. 4— Second 
Layer of Plantar Muscles of Right Foot. Fig. 5— Third 
Layer of Plantar Muscles of Right Foot. Fig. 6— Fourth 
Layer of Dorsal Muscles of Right Foot. 

XIV. MUSCLES OF TRUNK, NECK, AND ARMS ( Posterior View, 

with some of Anterior Surface) 48 

Fig 1— Muscles of Trunk, Upper Part of Thighs, and Anns. 
Fig. 2— Deep Muscles of Neck — Anterior View. Fig. 3^ 
Deep Muscles of Back of Neck. Fig. 4— Tendons and Ten- 
dinous Sheaths on Posterior Surface of Carpus. Fig. 5 — 
Tendons and Tendinous Aponeuroses of Right Wrist and 
Hand. 

XV DEEP MUSCLES OF ABDOMEN, DIAPHRAGM, AND 

PELVIS 50 

XVI. MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR AND EXTERNAL SUR- 
FACES OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES 52 

Fig. 1 — Muscles of Anterior Surface of Lower Extremities. 
Fig. 2— Muscles of External Surface of Right Side of Pel- 
vis and Lower Extremity. 

XVII. MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR AND INNER SURFACES 

OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES 54 

Fig. 1 — Muscles of Posterior Surface of Pelvis and Lower Ex- 
tremities. Fig. 2— Muscles of Inner surface of Pelvis, 
Thigh, Leg, and Foot. 

D. The Heart— Two Plates 77-80 

XVIII. THE HEART, ITS CAVITIES AND VALVES 78 

Anterior Surface, with Pericardial Covering. 

XIX. THE HEART, ITS OAVTTIES AND VALVES-Contiuued. 79 
Internal Cavities of Ventricles— Anterior View. 

E. Thoracic and Abdominal Viscera, with their Blood-- Vessels — Ten 

Bates 93-108 



XXV111 



XX. 



XXL 



XXII. 



XXIII. 



XXIV. 



XXV. 



XXVI. 



XXVII. 



XXVIII. 



XXIX. 



F. Blood 
XXX. 



CHAMPION TEXT- BOOK OX EMBALMING 

PAGE. 

VISCERA OF THORAX, ABDOMEN, AND PELVIS (AN- 
TERIOR VIEW) 94 

Thoracic Parietes with Viscera Enclosed ( Abdomen and 
Abdominal Viscera in Natural Position). 

VISCERA OF THORAX, ABDOMEN, AND PELVIS 

(ANTERIOR VIEW)— Continued 96 

Lungs, in Position, and Deeper Abdominal Viscera 
(Small Intestine Being Removed). 

PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEP- 

ERBLOOD=VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA. 98 
Small Intestine (Jejunum and Ilium), Mesenteries, and 
Mesenteric Vessels. 

PRIN( TPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEP- 
ER BLOOD VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA 

—Continued 99 

Fig. 1— Internal Arrangement of Hepatic Blood-vessels 
( Liver Divided Transversely). Fig. 2— Internal Struc- 
ture of Kidney, with Blood-Vessels and Dii"ts. 

PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEP- 
ER BLOODVESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA 

—Continued \W) 

Large Intestme, with Principal BloodA T essels. 

PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEP- 
ER BLOOD= VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA 

—Continued 101 

View of Posterior Surface of the Deep Viscera of Abdo- 
men and Pelvis, with Principal Bloodvessels. 

PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEP- 
ER BLOOD= VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA 

—Continued 102 

View of Posterior Surface of the Superficial Viscera of 
Abdomen and Blood= Vessels. 

THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH 
PRINCIPAL VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYM- 
PHATICS 103 

Posterior View of Solar Plexus and Minor Plexuses, with 
some of the Deep Blood ^Vessels. 

THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH 
PRINCIPAL VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYM- 
PHATICS— Continued 104 

Anterior View of the Trunk. 

THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH 
PRINCIPAL VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYM- 
PHATICS— Continued 106 

Posterior View of the Trunk. 

-Vessels of Head, Neck, etc.— Twelve Plates Ul-156 

BASE AND INTERIOR OF BRAIN, WITH ORIGINS 

OF NERVES AND BLOOD-VESSELS 142 

Base of Brain, Showing Origin of Neives and Arteries. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xx ix 

PliATK. PAGE. 

XXXI. BASE AND INTERIOR OF BRAIN, WITH ORIGINS 

OF NERVES AND BLOOD = VESSELS— Continued... 143 
Vertical Longitudinal Section of Brain, Cerebrum, and 
Crebellum, through Center. 

XXXH. BLOOD-VESSELS OF HEAD AND NECK 144 

Arteries of Anterior Surface of Head aud Neck. 

XXXIII. BLOOD = VESSELS OF LATERAL SURFACE OF 

HEAD, FACE, AND NECK 145 

XXXIV. ARTERIES OF RIGHT SIDE OF NECK 146 

XXXV. BLOOD-VESSELS OF (RIGHT) SIDE OF NECK 147 

XXXVI. BLOOD ■■ VESSELS OF NECK, TRUNK, AND UPPER 

EXTREMITIES 148 

Principal Arteries and Veins of Neck, Thorax, and Arms, 
with Deep Blood= Vessels of Abdominal Cavity. 

XXXVII. BLOOD = VESSELS OF ( LEFT ) SIDE OF HEAD AND 

FACE , 150 

XXXVIII. POSTERIOR SURFACE OF LUNGS AND TRACHEA, 
WITH THEIR PRINCIPAL ARTERIES, VEINS, 
AND NERVES 151 

XXXIX. ARTERIES OF ANTERIOR SURFACE OF ARM, 

FOREARM, AND HAND 152 

Fig. 1 — Superficial Arteries on Internal and Anterior Sur- 
face of Arm, Forearm, and Hand. Fig. 2— Deep Ar- 
teries of Arm, Forearm, and Hand— Anterior Surface. 

XL. THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH 

PRINCIPAL VESSELS 154 

Principal Chylopoietic Viscera, Blood= Vessels, and Ducts. 

XLI. CELIAC AXIS AND ITS BRANCHES 155 

O. Blood -Vessels of Perineal Regions and Lower Extremities — Four 

Plates.. 165-172 

XLII. BLOOD-VESSELS OF PERINEAL REGIONS .... 16fi 

Arteries of Pelvis and Internal Genital Organs in Female 
Subject. 

XLIII. BLOOD-VESSELS OF PERINEAL REGIONS— Con- 
tinued. Ki7 

Arteries of Pelvis in Male Subject. 

XLTV. ARTERIES OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES 168 
Fig. 1 — Arteries on Internal Surface of Pelvis, Thigh, and 
Knee of the Right Extremity. Fig. 2— Arteries on 
Dorsal Surface of Right Foot. Fig. 3-Plantar Arch 
of Arteries in Sole of Right Foot. 

XLV. ARTERIES OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES 

—Continued 17(i 

Fig. 1— Arteries on Anterior Surface of Right Leg and 
Foot. Fig. 2 — Arteries on Posterior Surface of Right 
Leg. Fig. 3 — Deep Arteries in Sole of Right Foot. 

H. Portal and Fetal Systems.— Two Plates 189-1M 



XXX CHAMPION TEXT- BO OK ON EMBALMING 

PLATE. PAGE. 

XLVI. PORTAL SYSTEM OF VEINS 190 

Portal Vein and Its Branches, Liver, Stomach, Pancreas, 
Spleen, Portion of Large and Small Intestines in Posi- 
tion ( Transverse Colon Removed. ) 

XLVTL FETAL CIRCULATION, WITH PLACENTA AND UM- 
BILICAL CORD 191 

ENGRAVINGS AND HALF-TONES. 

Fig. 1. — Lacunae and Haversian Canals 7 

Fig. 2.— A Muscle 37 

Fig. 3. — The Diaphragm, showing Under Surface, with Openings, etc... 59 

Fig. 4.— Section of Skin Magnified 62 

Fig. 5.— Section of Mesentery 67 

Fig. 6.— Mucous Membrane of Ilium, showing Villi (highly magnified) 68 

Fig. 7. — The Cerebrospinal Svstem 72 

Fig. 8.— The Brain aud Spinal Cord 74 

Fig. 9.— The Upper A i ^Passages 82 

Fig. 10.— The Thoracic Viscera 85 

Fig. 11.— Larynx, Trachea, and Bronchi 86 

Fig. 12.— The Alimentary Canal, a Portion of Esophagus Being He- 
moved 90 

Fig. 13.— The Jaws and Teeth 91 

Fig. 14.— Regions of the Abdomen and their Contents 110 

Fig. 15.— The Stomach Ill 

Fig. 16.— Beginning of Lar^e Intestine 114 

Fig. 17.— Under Surface of Liver, showing Lobes, Fissures, Vessels, etc. 116 

Fig. 18.— The Peritoneum 120 

Fig. 19.— Kidneys, Bladder, etc 122 

Fig, 20.— The Heart and Vessels 124 

Fig. -2].— Valves of the Heart 126 

Fig. 22.— Blood Corpuscles 129 

Fig. 23.— Blood Crystals 130 

Fig. 24.— Circulation of Blood 130 

Fig. 25.— Venous Valves 135 

Fig. 26.— Capillaries 137 

Fig. 27.— Plan of Branches of Aortic Arch 138 

Fig. 28.— Arch of Aorta and its Branches 139 

Fig. 29. — The Abdominal Aorta and its Branches 161 

Fig. 30. — Sinuses at Base of Brain 178 

Fig. 31. — Venae Cavse, Venae Azygos, etc 183 

Fig. 32. — Transverse Section of Thorax, showing Pulmonary Vessels, 

Heart, Lungs, etc 187 

Fio;. 33.— Vertical Section ofEyer, showing Chambers, Tunics, Muscles, etc 198 

Fjjj. 34.— Sectional View of tile Ear 203 

Fig. 35.— Sectional View of Right Nasal Cavity 204 

Fig. 36.— Mummy, Mummy Cases, and Sarcophagus 222 

Fig. 37.— Inner and Outer Mummy Cases 226 

Fnj. 38. — Chambers aud Valves of the Heart and the Larger Blood- Ves- 
sels, showing the Course of Circulation 277 

Fig. 39.— Raising the Brachial Artery 288 

Fig. 41. — Thoracic and Abdominal Cavities, showing Relative Position 

of Internal Organs 300 

Fig. 42.— Beginning a Dissection.... 303 



LIST OF ILL USTEATIONS xxxi 

PAGE 

Fig. 43.— Dissecting the Thoracic and Abdominal Cavities 308 

Fig. 44.— Section of Nose 314 

Fig. 45. — Aspirating Blood from the Heart 318 

Fig. 46.— Front View of the Thorax 319 

Fig. 47.— Bacillus Diphtheria? 350 

Fig. 48. — Section through Wall of Intestine, showing Invasion of Ty- 
phoid Bacilli 353 

Fig. 49.— Bacillus Typhi Abdominalis 354 

Fig. 50.— Bacillus Tuberculosis in Giant Cell 360 

Fig. 51. — Spirillum Cholera Asiaticse. 370 

Fig. 52. — Bacillus Cadaveris 374 

Fig. 53.— Bacillus Tetani 377 

Fig. 54.— Bacillus Anthracis 379 

Fig. 55.— Section from Margin of an Erysipelatous Inflammation, show- 
ing Streptococci in Lymph Spaces 389 

Fig. 56. — Micrococcus Pneumoniae Crouposse 400 

Fig. 57.— Single Colony of Micrococcus Pneumoniae Crouposee 401 

Fig. 58.— Colonies of Bacteria 488 

Fig. 59.— Pus containing Streptococci 489 

Fig. 60.— Forms of Bacteria 491 

Fig. 61.— Bacillus Cadaveris 493 

Fig. 62.— Bacillus Tuberculosis 494 

Fig, 63.— Novy's Formaldehyde Generator ,.-•-- ......<= 525 



PART FIRST. 



ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY 



INTRODUCTION TO PART FIRST. 



Axatomy is the science of organization. Tne word "anatomy" properly 
signifies dissection, but it has been appropriated to the study and knowl- 
edge of the apparent properties of organized bodies. 

In Part First we treat of the anatomy of the human body, not in its 
minutia, but, we might say, superficially. We have endeavored to give it 
in sufficient detail, however, that the student of embalming may under- 
stand the matter that follows. He should be familiar with the divisions 
of the body, its various organs and parts; the location and contents of the 
cavities; the consistency and composition of the various structures; the 
different circulations; the structure and position of the arteries and veins, 
and their relation to each other, and to other parts, for the purpose of 
raising them when necessary, and also to avoid rupturing or mutilating 
them while performing operations upon the body. 

We also treat of physiology, so that the functions of the different organs 
and fluids of the body may be understood. 

Still, many students of embalming will, no doubt, skim very lightly 
over this part and even skip some chapters entirely; yet, the real student, 
who desires to lay deep the foundation for future success, should study 
every page, for the more he knows about the construction of the bcdy, the 
better able he will be to care for it, when the last spark of life is finally 
extinct. 

The very excellent anatomical plates, which appear in this part of the 
work, cannot but be a great aid to the student in the study of anatomy. 
Many of these are in colors, showing the arteries and veins in contrast, 
which makes it easy to follow their course, and comprehend their relation. 
The substitution of large-sized letters and figures, for the smaller and 
more indistinct ones used in previous editions, to indicate the principal 
parts, greatly enhances the value cf these plates. A careful study of them, 
in connection with the text, is advised. 



CHAPTER I. 



OSTEOLOGY. 



Osteology is that part of anatomical science that treats of 
the structure, articulation, development, and use of the bones 
of the skeleton. 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 

Number of Bones. — The classified bones of the skeleton in 
the adult are two hundred in number. The six small bones of 
the car; the small sesamoid bones, varying- from five to eight, 
found at the first joint of the thumb and toe; and the Worm- 
ian bo^es, sometimes found in the cranial sutures, are not 
classified, and are, therefore, not included in the number. The 
patella (knee=cap) is a typical sesamoid bone, but, being 
large, and having such an important place in the anatomy of 
the body, is usually classified anting the irregular bones. The 
teeth are never enumerated among the bones. 

The number of bones in youth is greater. The sacrum and 
coccyx, each a single bone in the adult, are in youth made up 
respectively of five and four "false vertebrae" ;• in youth the 
sternum consists of eight pieces, becoming three in the adult ; 
and the innominate, which in youth is composed of three sepa- 
rate parts, ossifies into a single bone in the adult. 

The Distribution of the Eones in the body is as follows : 
cranium and face, 22; spine, including sacrum and coccyx, 
26; ribs, sternum, and os hyoides, 20; upper extremities, 64; 
lower extremities, 62; total, 200. 

The bones are placed in such a position as to bestow indi- 
vidual character upon the body, afford points of connection to 

4 



OSTEOLOGY 



entire fabric. In the extremities they are hollow cylinders, 
and, by their conformation and structure, are admirably cal- 
culated to support weight and resist violence. In the head 
and trunk the bones are flattened and arched for the purpose 
of protecting cavities and providing an extensive surface for 
attachment. In some situations they present projections, 
which serve as levers; in others, smooth grooves, which act 
as pulleys for the passage of tendons. By their numerous 
divisions and mutual apposition, the bones are equally 
adapted to fulfill every movement of the body which may 
tend to its preservation, or be conducive to its welfare. 

Classification of Bones. — The bones are divided into four 
classes : long, short, fiat, and irregular. 

The Long Bones are found in the extremities, and consist 
of a shaft and two extremities. The shaft is cylindrical in 
form, and the structure is dense and hard, being hollowed out 
in the interior to form the medullary canal. The extremities 
are broad and expanded, for the purpose of articulation and 
for muscular attachment. The texture at the extremities is 
spongy, with only a thin coating of compact tissue. The long 
bones are the clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, 
fibula, metacarpal, metatarsal, and phalanges. 

The Short Bones. — Where strength and compactness are 
required, and motion is slight and limited, the part is com- 
posed of a number of short bones bound together by liga- 
ments. Their texture is spongy with a thin crust of compact 
tissue; such are the bones of the carpus and tarsus. 

The Flat Bones are adapted to enclose cavities, and afford 
broad surfaces for the attachment of muscles. They are com- 
posed of two thin layers of compact tissue, with an interme- 
diate quantity of cancellous tissue. In the bones of the cra- 
nium, the two layers of compact tissue arc known as the tables 
of the skull, and the intermediate cancellous tissue, as diploe. 



<; CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

The flat bones are the occipital, frontal, parietal, nasal, lach- 
rymal, vomer, scapula, innominate, sternum, and ribs. 

The Irregular Bones include all the remaining bones. In 
form they are irregular — in some parts short and thick, in 
others flat. Their structure is similar to that of other bones, 
having a dense exterior and a spongy, cancellous interior. 
They are the vertebra, sacrum, coccyx, temporal, sphenoid, 
ethmoid, malar, superior and inferior maxillary, palate, turbi- 
nate, hyoid, and patella. 

The Composition of Bones at maturity is about one part 
animal or organic matter, consisting of gelatin, vessels, and 
fat, and about two parts mineral or inorganic matter, consist- 
ing of phosphate and carbonate of lime (t>2.'/r ), with fluorid 
of lime, phosphate of magnesium, sodium, and chforid of so- 
dium (4J^ )• The proportion varies with age. In youth it 
is nearly half-and-half, while in old age the mineral is greatly 
in excess. Heat will remove the animal matter and leave the 
mineral; dilute muriatic or nitric acid will remove the min- 
eral matter and leave the animal. 

Put a bone for a few minutes into a hot fire, and, when care- 
fully removed, it will have the same shape as before, but be 
much lighter, perfectly white, very brittle, and will easily 
crumble. The animal or organic pari has been burnt out, 
leaving only the earthy or inorganic. Immerse a long, slender 
bone for some time in dilute muriatic acid. The bone will re- 
tain its original shape, but be lighter in weight, soft, and pli- 
able, so that it can be twisted or tied into a knot. The acid 
lias eaten oul the earthy part, but left unaffected the animal. 

The Structure of Bones. — Bone is composed of an outer, 
compact layer, and an inner, cellular or spongy structure. 
The spongy structure increases in quantity and becomes more 
porous at the ends of a long bone, while the compact portion 
increases near the middle, where strength is needed. 

Fresh or Living Bone is moist, pinkish in color, and cov- 
ered with a tough membrane, called the periosteum (peri, 



OSTEOLOGY 




Fig. 1. Lacunae and Haversian Canals, 

with tiny tubes or canaliculi radiating from 
the former, as shown in a thin slice of bone. 
highly magnified. One Haversian canal is 
seen lengthwise and three crosswise. 



around; osteon, a bone), filled with marrow, and lined with a 
similar membrane, the enclosteum (en, in; osteon, a bone). 

The Lacunae. — If a thin, transverse section of bone be 
placed under the microscope, 
black spots, with lines running 
in all directions, are seen. These 
are cavities, called lacuna?, from 
which radiate small tubes. The 
lacuna? are arranged in circles 
around large tubes, called Ha- 
versian canals, which serve as 
passages for the blood=vessels. 
By means of these canals the 
blood circulates through the 
bone=tissue, nourishing it. 

Development of Bone.— The 
bone=structure does not reach its full development until about 
the twenty=fifth year. The skeleton of the body in infancy is 
composed largely of cartilage, which is a white, glistening 
substance, commonly known as gristle. As age advances, 
earthy matter is deposited in the cartilage, the bone gradu- 
ally becoming harder and growing proportionately to other 
parts of the body. The bones in childhood being tough are 
not easily fractured, and when broken readily heal again, 
while those of elderly people are brittle and liable to fracture, 
and do not easily reunite. 

Injury and Repair of Bones.— The proper growth and 
development of the bones is often hindered by disease or in- 
jury. Lack of a proper amount of earthy matter makes the 
bones soft and allows them to be easily bent out of shape, 
causing deformit}'. The breaking of a bone is by no means an 
infrequent occurrence. When broken the blood oozes out of 
the fractured ends. This soon becomes a watery fluid, which, 
in the course of a couple of weeks, thickens to a gristly sub- 
stance, forming a, cement which holds the fractured ends in 



8 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

place. In five or six weeks the broken parts will have re- 
united, bone matter having beew gradually deposited about 
the fracture. This new formation is larger than the adjacent 
bone, but the extra matter is gradually absorbed, and often 
no trace of the injury remains. 

BONES OF THE HEAD. 

The Bones of the Skull and the Face form a cavity for 

the protection of the brain. They are immovable, except the 
lower jaw which is hinged at the back, so as to allow the 
opening and shutting of the mouth. 

The Skull Bones are composed, in general, of two com- 
pact plates, with a spongy layer (diploe) between. The outer 
plates are joined together by notched edges, or sutures, sim- 
ilar to what the carpenter terms dovetailing. 

The Cranial Cavity thus formed affords a perfect shelter 
for the brain. It is oval in shape and adapted to resist pres- 
sure. It communicates at the base, through the foramen mag- 
num, with the spinal canal. The cranial cavity and spinal 
canal together are called the cerebrospinal canal. 
BONES OF THE TRUNK. 

The Trunk contains the two largest cavities, the chest, or 
thorax, and abdomen. The principal bones are those of the 
spine, the ribs, the breast=bone, and the pelvis or hips. 

The Spinal Column consists of twenty-four bones, called 
vertebra- (verto, to turn), one placed upon another, between 
which are placed pads of cartilage. A canal is hollowed out 
of the column for the protection of the spinal cord. There are 
projections (processes) at the back and sides, which serve as 
levers for the attachment of muscles and ligaments. The skull 
articulates with the spine in a peculiar manner. On the top 
of the upper vertebra (atlas) are two little hollows ( facets), 
lined with a synovial membrane, which receive the projections 
on the lower part of the skull, one on either side of the fora- 
men magnum, allowing the head to rock to and fro. The sec- 



A 
THE BONES 

SEVEN PLATES— I -VII 



PLATE 



BONES OF THE SKELETON. 



Collar=bone 
ShouIder=blade 

Rreast=bone 

True Ribs 
Humerus 



Spinal Colli 
Radi 

Ulna 

Pelvis 

Sacrum' 

End of Spine 

Carpal Bones 

Metacarpal BoneS| 

Phalanges 



Bones of 
Ankle 

and Fool 




ANALYSIS OF THE HUMAN SKELETON. 



The Head 
(22 bones). 



1. Cranium 

(8 bones). 



Face 

(14 bones) 



Frontal (.forehead). 

Two Parietal ( sides ). 

Two Temporal (temple) bones. 

Sphenoid ( base of skull ). 

Ethmoid (sieve-like bone at root of nose). 

Occipital ( back and base of skull ). 

Two Superior Maxillary ( upper jaw ). 

Inferior Maxillary (lower jaw ). 

Two Malar (cheek ). 
I Two Lachrymal (in orbit of eye ), 

Two Turbinated ( scroll=like). 

Two Nasal (bridge of nose). 

Vomer ( bone between the nostrils). 
[ Two Palate. 



The Trunk 
(54 bones). 



1. Spinal Column 
(24 bones). 



2. Ribs 

(24 bones). 



Seven Cervical Vertebra?. 
Twelve Dorsal Vertebrae. 
Five Lumbar Vertebra?. 

Twenty True Ribs. 
Four False Ribs. 



Sternum (breast=bone). 
Hyoides (bone at root of tongue). 



Pelvis. 
(i bones). 



f Tw 
I 



In nominates. 
Sacrum. 
Coccyx. 



The 
Extremities 

( 124 bones ). 



Upper 

((14 bones). 



Lower 

(CO bones). 



[ Shoulder ft apl ^ a - 

(Clavicle. 

| A l-ni -[ Humerus. 

v . fUlna. 

J voro:mn | Radius. 

[Eight Carpal Bones, 

| Hand \ Five Metacarpal Hones. 

[ | Phalanges (14 bones). 

\ Thigh | Femur. 

I Knee \ Patella. 

| J ' C " (Fibula. 

f Seven Tarsal Bones. 

| Foot \ Five Metatarsal Bones. 

(.Phalanges (14 hones). 



11 



PLATE II. 



BONES OF MEAD. 

Fig 1.— Front View of Cranium. 

A: Frontal bone. I E. Malar (cheek) bone. 

B. Parietal bone. | F. Superior maxillary (upper jaw). 

('. Great wing of sphenoid bone. I G. Nasal bone. 

D. Temporal (.temple) bone. | H. Inferior maxillary (lower jaw). 

1. Frontal suture. I 3. Infraorbital foramen. 

2. Mastoid process. 

Fig. 2. -Side View of Cranium. 
A. Frontal bone. I E Malar (cheek 1 bone. 



B. Parietal bone. I F. Superior maxillary (upper jaw), 

C. Great wing of sphenoid bone, I G. Nasal bone. 

D. Temporal ( temple) bone. | H. Inferior maxillary (lower jaw). 

1. Frontal eminence. | 2. Mastoid process. 



Fig. 3.— Vertical Section of Facial Bones. 

Showing inner surface of orbit, antrum highmorianum, and lateral 

surface of superior maxillary, with portions of sphenoid, 

ten'ioiai, and palate bones posteriory. 

A. Frontal bone. I E. Ethmoid bone. 

B. Nasal bone. I E. Lachrymal bone. 
C Superior maxillary. I G. Sphenoid bone. 
D. Palate bone. 

Fig. £.— Vertical Section of Facial Bonos. 

Showing interior ami outer wall of nasal cavity, with portions of 
frontal, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal sinuses. 

A. Frontal bone. I F. Hard palate. 

B. Sphenoid bone. G. Inferior spongy bone. 

C. Pterygoid process. I H. Nasal plate of ethmoid bone. 

D. Vertical p. ate of palate. K. Nasal bone. 

E. Horizontal plate of palate. 

Fig. 5.— Ethmoid Bone — Upper Surface. 
Fig. 6.— Ethmoid Bone — Nasal Surface. 
Fig. 7.— Palate Eone — Nasal Surface. 
Fig. 8.-Hyoid Bone — Anterior Aspect. 




14 



PLATE ill. 



?$0NE5 OF THE HEAD— ( Continued). 

Fig. 1.— Base cf Skull- Inner Surface. 



A. 


Frou 


B. 


Less* 


('. 


Grea 


D. 


Squa 


IS. 


Petro 



ihenoid bone. 
sphenoid bone. 
>f temporal bone, 
jf temporal bone. 



F. Mastoid portion of teniporal bona 

Cr. Occipital bone. 

II. Basilar process cf occipital bone. 

I. Ethmoid bone. 

Z. Foramen magnum. 



Fig. 2.— Inferior Surface of Cranium— Base of Skull, 



A. Bony or bard palate. 

C. Superior maxillary. 

D. Horizontal plate of palate bone. 

IS. Pterygoid process of sphenoid bone 

F. Greater wing of sphenoid. 

tV. Vomer. 

//. Squamous plate of temporal bone. 



1. Mastoid process. 

K. Petrous portion of temporal bon* 

L. Basilar process. 

M. Occipital. 

O. Zygomatic arch. 

Z. Foramen magnum. 



Figs. 3 and 4.— Temporal Bone — External Surface (3); Inner Surface (4) 
I C Petrous portion. 



A. Squamous plate. 
Ji. Mastoid portion. 



Figs. 5 and 6.— Sphenoid Bone— Inner Surface (5); Anterior Surface (6>. 



A. Body. 

B. Lesser wings. 



I C. Greater wi 
| D. Pterygoid 



ngs. 
process (6). 



Figs, 7 and 8. -Inferior Maxillary- Outer Surface (7) ; Inner Surface (8) 
A. Body. ! E. .Ascending ramus. 



1C 



PLATE IV. 



BONES OF TRUNK. 

Fig. 1. -Spine (Vertebrae). Thorax, Clavicle, and portion of Scapula. 



Atlas, first veretebra. 
Axis, second vertebra. 
Last cervical vertebra. 
First dorsal vertebra. 
Last dorsal vertebra. 
First lumbar vertebra, 
Last lumbar verteora. 
First rib. 



M. First false or asternal rib. 

N. Last floating rib. 

O. Body of sternum. 

P. Manubrium or first bone of sternum 

Q. Ensiform or xiphoid cartilage. 

Ji. Clavicle. 

S. Scapula. 

T. Glenoid cavity. 



A. Sacrum. 

B. Innominatum. 
C. Ilium. 

D. Ischium. 



Fig 2.— Pelvis. 



E. Pubes. 

N. Acetabulum. 

8. Spine of pubes. 

U. Symphysis pubi 



Fig. 3.— True or Sternal Ribs. 



Fig. 4.— Sternum— Anterior Surface. 



A. Manubrium, or first bone. 

B. Body or middle portion. 



I ° 



Ensiform or xiphoid process. 



A. Ilium. 

B. Ischium. 



Fig. 5.— Os Innominatum of Right Side— Inner Surface. 



C. Pubes. 

Obturator foramen. 



Fig. 6.— Os Innominatum of Left Side — Outer Surface 



A. Ilium. 

B. Ischium. 



C. Pubes. 
E. Acetabulum. 



Figs. 7 and 8.— Os Coccygir — Posterior Surface ( 7 ) ; Anterior and Upper Surfaces { 8 J> 



PLATE V. 

BONES OF TRUNK— (Continued). 

Fig. 1.— Posterior View of Trunk. 

I 



A. Atlas. ( See Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5.) I M. Last rib. 

B. Axis. | N. Clavicle. 
C. Last cervical vertebra. I O. Scapula. (See Table VI., Figs 3, 4, and 5.) 



D. First dorsal vertebra. 

E. Last dorsal vertebra. 

F. First lumbar vertebra. 

G. Last lumbar vertebra 
I. Transverse processes. 

L. First rib. 



P. Sacrum. 

Q. Coccyx. 

B. Ilia. 

S. Ischium. 

T. Pubes. 



Fis- 2.— Atlas and A::is- Anterior Surface. 
A. Atlas. j B. Axis. 

Fig. 3.— Atlas and Axis — Posterior Surface. 

A. Atlas. ! D. Articular surface of atlas for occipital 

B. Axis. condyle. 

C. Odontoid process. 

Figs. 4 and 5.- Atlas —Superior Surfacs (i) ; Inferior Surface (5). 

Fig. 6.— Axis— Anterior Surface. 

A. Body. I II. Transverse processes. 

B, Odontoid pi ocess. 

Fig. 7.— Cervical Vertebra- Superior Surface. 
Figs. 8 and £ .—A Dorsal ( 8 ) ; and a Lumbar Vertebra ( 9 )— Superior Surfaces. 



PLATE VI. 



BONES OF UPPER EXTREMITIES. 

Figs. 1 and 2. -Clavicle (Lefi)-Superior Surface (1); Inferior Surface (2). 

a. Body. c. Acromial end. 

b. Stomal end. 

Fig. 3.— Scapula- Posterior and Outer Surface. 

a. Supraspinatus fossa. I e. Articular surface for clavicle, 

6. Infraspinatus fossa. /. Coracoid process. 

c. Spine. j b. Neck. 

d. Acromion process. | p. Glenoid cavity. 

Fig. 4- -Scapula— Internal or Concave Surface. 

a. Subscapular fossa. e. Acromion process. 

b. Anterior angle or condyle. j h. Suprascapular notch. 

c. Glenoid cavity. o. Tubercle for origin of triceps muscle* 

d. Margin or brim of glenoid cavity. | 

Fig. 5.— Scapula— Front View of Anterior Margin. 

a. Glenoid cavity. I d. Inferior angle. 

b. Brim of cavity. e. Spine. 



Anterior m;i 



Fig. 6.— Humerus (Left)— Posterior View. 



a. Head of humerus. /. Internal ridge. 

b. Greater Tuberosity. </. Internal condyle. 

c. Neck (anatomical). , h. External condyle. 

d. Body. i. Trochlea. 

e. External ridge. ! 

Fig. 7.- Humerus (Left) -Anterior View. 
Figs. 8 and 9.— Ulna— Posterior View (8); Anterior View (9). 

a. Olecranon process. c. Greater sigmoid notch. 

b. Coronoid process. 

Figs. 10 and ll.-Radius— Anterior View (10); Postsrior View (11). 
Fig. 12.— Bones of Bight Hand— Posterior Surface. 



A. Carpus. 

JB. Metacarpus. 

a. Navicular. 

b. Lunar. 

c. Cuneiform. 

d. Trapezium. 

e. Trapezoid. 
/. Magnum. 



ff. Unciform. 
hm. Metacarpal bones. 
n. Bases of metacarpal b 
o. Heads of metacarpal I 
p-t. Phalanges. 



Figs. 13 and 14.— Carpus, Metacarpus, and Phalanges of Thumb (Lefts— Posterior 
Surface (.13;; Anterior Surface (14). 

Figs. 15 and 17.— Carpal Bones (Lefi\ First Row — Superior Articular StM>foce (15); 
Inferior Surface ( 17 ). 

a. Navicular. | c. Cuneiform. 

<b. Lunar. j d. Pisiform. 

Figs. 16 and 18.— Carpal Bones (Left), Second Row -Intercarpal Articular Surface 
(16); Digital Surface (18). 

a. Trapezium [ d. Unci form. 

b. Trapezoid. c. Mamular process of unciform tone. 

c. Magnum. 



PLATE VII. 

BONES OF LOWER EXTREMITIES. 

Fig. 1. -Femur (Left)— Anterior Surface. 



a. Head. 

{•. Fossa for ligamentum teres. 

c. Neck. 

d. Trochanter major. 

e. Trochanter minor. 



Anterior Intertrochanteriaii line. 

Body. 

External condyle. 

Internal condyle. 

Articular surface for patella. 



Fig. 2.— Femur (Left) -Posterior Surface. 



-e. As in Fig. 1. 

f. Posterior intertrochanterian line. 

a. Superior oblique lines of liuea aspera. 

/(. Linea aspera. 

('. Inferior oblique line of linea aspera. 



k. Body. 

I. Popliteal fossa, 

n. External condyle. 

n. Internal condyle, 

o. Intercondyloid fossa. 



F!gs. 3 and 4.-Left Patella (Knee=Cap)— Anterior Surface (3); Posterior Surface (4). 



Fi'3. 5 and 6.— Tibia (Left) Anterior and Inner Surfaces (5); Posterior Surface (G) 



a. Internal condyle. 

b. External condyle. 

c. Internal articular surface 
■I. External articular surfaci 



e. Intercondyloid eminence. 

/. Articular surface for head of fibula. 

I. Articular surface for astragalus. 

m. (,5). i. ((J). Internal malleolus. 



Figs. 7 and 8.— Fibula (Left)— Anterior Surface (7); Posterior Surface (8). 



a. Head. 

b. Superior articular surface. 

c. Body 



d. External malleolus. 

e. Tibial surface. 

/. Articular surface of astragalus. 



Pigs 9 and 10.— Bones of Foot (Right)— Upper or Dorsal Surface (0); Inferior or 
Plantar Surface (10). 



a. Astragalus. 

b. Oscalcis. 

c. Navicular. 

<l, e, i'. Cuneiform bones 
g. Cuboid. 



h,i. Metatarsal 1 
k, m. First, phali 
I, n. Second plia 
o. Third or ung 



l\'js. 11 and 12.— Tarsal and Metatarsal Bones (Left)— Uoper or Dorsal Surface (11); 
Under or Plantar Suface (12). 



I. Astragalus. 

II. Oscalcis. 

III. Navicular. 

IV. Internal cuneifc 



V. Middle cuneiform hone. 
VI. External cuneiform bone. 
VII. Cuboid. 



n. Metatai 
o. Bases, 
p. Heads. 



boi 



q. Tuberosity of fifth metatarsal bone. 
7-. Sesamoid bones of great too. 



OSTEOLOGY 25 

ond vertebra (axis) has a peg (odontoid process), which pro- 
jects through a hole in the atlas, so that when we move the 
head sidewise, the atlas turns around the peg of the axis. 
The spinal column serves as a support for the whole body. 

The vertebrae are named from the region in which they are 
located, seven being in the cervical region, twelve in the dor- 
sal, and five in the lumbar. The sacrum and coccyx, which 
form the terminal bones of the spinal column in the adult, in 
the child consisted of five and four vertebrae respectively. 

The Ribs are twenty-four in number, and are arranged in 
pairs on each side of the chest. They are also attached to the 
spine at the back. The upper seven pairs are attached by 
cartilages to the sternum (breast=bone) ; the next three pairs 
are fastened to each other and to the cartilage above; and 
the last two pairs, the floating ribs, are loose. The long, 
slender, and arched ribs give lightness and strength, and the 
cartilages give elasticity to the chest — properties essential to 
the protection of the organs within, and to freedom of motion 
in respiration. 

The Innominata (nameless), or hip-bones, at the front 
and the sides, with the sacrum and coccyx at the back, form 
the pelvic cavity. The hip=bones constitute the pubic arch, 
being joined by a seam, termed the symphysis pubis. The hip= 
bone in the young consists of three parts on each side, which 
unite in adult life to form a single one ; but the different parts 
retain their several names, viz., ilium, ischium, and pubes. 

The Extremities are connected to the trunk, and are four 
in number : two upper, joined to the thorax through the inter- 
vention of tin 1 shoulder; and two lower, connected with the 
pelvis. The upper pair, comprising the shoulders, arms, fore- 
arms, and hands, are subservient to tact and prehension; the 
lower pair, comprising the thighs, legs, and feet, to support 
and locomotion. 



26 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY. 

The Shoulder. — The hones of the shoulder are the clavicle 
(collar-bone) and the scapula (shoulder-blade). The clavicle 
is a long hone shaped like the italic f. It articulates at one 
end with the sternum and at the other with the scapula- 

The Scapula is a thin, flat, triangular bone, situated on the 
top and back of the chest, forming the back part of the shoulder. 

The Shoulder- Joint. — The humerus, or arm=bone, artic- 
ulates with the shouhlei-blade by a balL=and=soeket joint. This 
consists of a cup=like cavity, the glenoid, in the scapula, and a 
rounded head of the humerus to fit it, thus affording a free, 
rotary motion. 

The Elbow is formed by the humerus and ulna articula- 
tion. The ulna is small at the lower end, while the radius, or 
large bone of the forearm, on the contrary, is small at its upper 
end, and large at its lower end, where it forms the wrist=joint. 

The Carpus, or wrist, consists of two rows of short bones, 
one row of which articulates with the radius, forming the 
wrist=joint, and the other with the metacarpal bones. 

The Hand. — The metacarpal bones, or bones of the palm, 
support the fingers and thumb. Each finger has three bones, 
while the thumb lias two. The first is articulated with the meta- 
carpal bone, the second with the first, and the third with the sec- 
ond. The bones of the fingers and thumb are called phalanges. 

BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 

The Femur, or thigh=bone, is the longest, largest, and 
strongest bone in the skeleton. It articulates with the hip= 
hone by a ball=and=socket joint. The acetabulum, a cup= 
shaped depression, receives the head of the femur, forming a 
very strong joint. 

The Knee- Joint is strengthened and protected by the pa- 
tella, or knee=cap, the largest sesamoid bone, which is firmly 
fastened over the joint in the tendon of the quadriceps muscle. 

The Tibia, or shin=bone, the largest bone of the leg, artic- 
ulates with the femur, forming the knee=joint; with the foot, 
forming the ankle=joint; and with the fibula, the small out- 
side bone of the leg. 



OSTEOLOGY 27 

The Foot, in general arrangement, is very similar to that 
of the hand. The several parts of the foot are the tarsus, the 
metatarsus, and the phalanges. The numerous bones are 
joined together with cartilages, giving elasticity to the foot 
in walking. A study of Plates I to VII will give a very good 
idea, of the appearance and relative size of the bones. 

Sesamoid Bones are small osseous masses, developed in 
tendons, which exert a degree of force upon the parts over 
which they glide. They are enveloped entirely by the fibrous 
tissue of the tendon in which they exist, except on the side 
that articulates with the part over which they glide. 

Wormian Bones are sometimes found in the cranial su- 
tures, but are not constant in number or size. . 

The Joints are movable or immovable. The movable joints 
are covered with a soft, smooth cartilage, which fits so per- 
fectly as to be air tight. It is lined with a thin (synovial) 
membrane, which secretes a viscid fluid not unlike the white 
of an egg. This fluid lubricates the joints and prevents fric- 
tion. The body is the only self=oiling machine in existence. 
The immovable joints have no synovial membrane. The bones 
which form the joint are bound together firmly with strong 
Mgaments (from ligo, I join), so as to keep them always in 
apposition. 

Articulations are divided into three classes: (1) synar- 
throsis, immovable; (2) amphiarthrosis, synchondrosis, or 
symphysis, having limited motion; (3) diarthrosis, having 
free motion. The latter is divided into gliding joints, ball= 
and=socket joints, and hinge=joints. The varieties of motion 
in joints arc: flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, rota- 
tion, circumduction, and gliding. 

The Structures that enter the formation of joints are 
articular lamella, cartilage, fibro=cartilage, synovial mem- 
brane, and ligaments. 

Articular Lamella is a layer of compact bone which forms 
i lie articular surface, and to which Hie cartilage is attached; 
it is white and dense, contains no Haversian canals or cana- 
licnli, and lias large lacuna?. 



28 CHAMPION TEXT- BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Cartilage is either temporary or permanent. The first 
forms the original framework of the skeleton, and becomes 
ossified. Permanent cartilage is not prone to ossification, and 
is divided into three varieties: (1) articular, covering the 
ends of bones in joints; (2) costal, forming part of the skele- 
ton; (3) reticular, arranged in lamellae, or plates, to main- 
tain the shape of certain parts. 

Fibro-Cartilage consists of a mixture of white fibrous and 
cartilaginous tissues, and is flexible, tough, and elastic. It is 
divided into four groups: (1) interarticular, separating the 
bones of a joint; (2) connecting, binding bones together; (3) 
circumferential, deepening cavities; (4) stratiform, lining- 
grooves. 

Synovial Membrane is a thin, delicate membrane, resem- 
bling serous membrane in structure, forming a short, wide 
tube, or capsule, and lining the joints and articular surfaces. 
It secretes a thick, viscid, glairy fluid, called synovia, which 
acts as a lubricator, preventing friction. Synovial mem- 
branes are classified as ( 1 ) articular, lubricating joints; (2) 
bursal, forming closed sacks; (3) vaginal, ensheathing ten- 
done. 

The Ligaments, which bind the bones together at the 
joints, are strong bands of a smooth, silvery- white, fibrous 
tissue. It is solid and inelastic, softer than cartilage, but 
harder than membrane, The bond formed is so strong that 
the bones are sometimes broken without injury to the fasten- 
ings. There are a vast number of ligaments in the human 
body, various in form and office, and each with its own spe- 
cial name. 

Poupart's Ligament is the only ligament which calls for 
a special description. It is attached to the anterior superior 
spinous process i upper front part of the os innominatum, or 
hip-bone), and to the center of the pubic arch, forming the 
upper boundary of Scarpa's triangle, and the division be- 
tween the abdomen and thigh. 

For shape, size, position, and names of ligaments, sec- 
Plates VIII toX. 



B 
THE LIGAMENTS 



THREE PLATES— VIII. -X 



29 



PLATE VIII. 

LIGAMENTS OF HEAD, TRUNK, AND UPPER EXTREMITIES. 

Fig. 1. — Ligaments of the Vertebrae, Sternal End of Ribs, Pelvis, and Iliofemoral 
Articulation — Anterior Surface. 

1. Anterior vertebral ligament. | 6. Internal costotransverse ligaments. 

','.. Anterior occipito-atlantoid ligament. 7. External costotransverse ligaments. 

'.',. Intervertebral fibro cartilage. 8. Posterior intercostal ligaments. 

4. Intertransverse ligaments. !». Lumbocostal ligaments. 

5. Posterior costovertebral ligaments. | 

Figs. 2 and 3. — Liga,ments of Right Temporomaxillary Articulation — External Surface 
(2); Infernal Surface (3). 

1. Capsular ligament. 

Figs. 4 and 5. — Internal Ligaments Connecting Occipital Bone with Axis and of the 

Articulation between Atlas and Axis — Posterior View, the Posterior 

Half Arches of these BonKs having been removed. 

Figs. 6 and 7. — Ligaments of Sternoclavicular and Sternocostal Articulations with An- 
terior Intercostal Ligaments — Anterior Surface (6); Posterior Surface (7). 



FIG 4 and 5 

1. Interclavicular ligament. 
'.'.. Iternal capsular ligament of sterno- 
clavicular articulation. 
3. Rhomboid ligament. 



4. 4. Ligamenta coruscantia. 

5. Anterior proper sternal ligament. 

6. Posterior proper sternal ligament. 



Figs. 8 ar.d 9. — Ligaments of Shoulder-Joint and Scapuloclavicular Articulation. 



Transverse ligament of scapula. 
Capsular ligament of shoulder-joint. 
Tendon of long head of biceps. 
Glenoid ligament. 



1. Claviculo-acrominal ligament. 

2. External capsular ligament of clavi- 

cle. 
5. -rrapezoid ligament. 

4. Conoid ligament. 

5. Coraco-acrominal ligament. 

Fi.^s. 10 and 11. — Ligaments of Left Elbow-Joint — Anterior Left Surface (10) ; Pos- 
terior Surface (11). 

1. Capsular ligament. I 5. Oblique ligament of radioulnar articu- 

2. External lateral ligament. lation. 

3. Internal lateral ligament. 6. Interosseous ligament. 

4. Orbicular ligament of radius 

Figs. 12. Ligaments ot Left Wrist-Joint and Hand. 



1. Interosseous ligament. 

2. External lateral ligament. 

3. Internal lateral ligament. 

4. Posterior radiocarpal ligament. 

.">. Posterior superficial carpal ligaments. 

0. Posterior deep carpal ligaments. 

7. Internal lateral ligament of carpi 



8. Proper ligaments of carpus. 

9. Dorsal carpometacarpal ligaments. 

10. 10. Dorsal ligaments of metacarpal 

bases. 

11. 11. External lateral ligaments of 

fingers. 

12. Internal lateral ligaments of fin- 

gers. 



Fig. 13. — Ligaments of Left Wrist-Joint and Hand — Anterior Surface. 



Interosseous ligaments. 
{. Anterior radiocarpal ligaments. 

I. atrial radial ligaments. 

Lateral ulnar ligament. 

Triangular cartilage. 
\ Anterior proper carpal ligaments. 



Anterior carpometaca 


pa 


merits. 




>. Anterior intermetacai 


pa 


ments. 




11. 12. Ligaments of i 


let 


phalangeal articulation. 






/ So 



PLATE IX. 



LIGAMENTS OF PELVIS AND ADJOINING ARTICULATIONS. 

Fig. 1.— Ligaments of Lower Part of Spine, Pelvis, and Iliofemoral Articulatioa, 



a. Last lumbar vertebra. 

n. Sacrum. 

o. Coccyx. 

p. Ilium. 

q. Crest of ilium. 

r. Anterior superior spine of ilium 

e. Anterior inferior spine of ilium. 



t. Horizontal ramus of pubes. 

u. Descending ramus of pubes. 

v. Symphysis pubis, 

it'. Ascending ramus of ischium. 

.r. Tuber of ischium. 

y. Descending ramus of ischium 



(For Bones of Pelvis see Plate IV.) 



10. Superior iliolumbar ligaments. 

11. Inferior iliolumbar ligaments. 

12. Anterior iliosacral ligaments. 
IS. Lesser sciatic ligaments. 

14. Anterior sacrococcygeal ligament. 

15. Obturator ligaments. 



1(5, 17. Capsular ligaments of hip. 
]8. Accessory ligaments of hip. 
](». Bursa of internal iliac muscle. 

20. Subpubic ligament. 

21. Interpubic ligament. 



PLATE X. 



LIGAMENTS OF SPINE, PELVIS, AND JOINTS OF LOWER 
EXTREMITIES. 



Fig. 1.— Ligaments of Cervical and Dorsal Vertebrae. 



1. Superior attachment of posterior liga- 

ment. 

2. Apparatus ligamentosus colli ( neck ). 



3. Capsular ligament. 

5. Posterior costotransverse ligament. 

0. Ligaments of necks of ribs. 



Fig. 2.— Dorsal Ligaments of Spinal Column, Pelvis, and Iliofemoral Articulations. 
( For bones of pelvis see Plate IV.) 



1. Interspinous ligaments. 

2. Posterior intercostal ligaments. 

3. Lumbocostal ligaments. 
4,5. Transverse ligaments. 
(J, 7. Iliolumbar ligaments. 
8, 9, 10. Iliosacral ligaments. 



11. Posterior irregular ligaments. 

12. Posterior sacrococcygeal ligaments. 

13. 14. Sacrosciatic ligaments. 
15. Obturator ligament. 

ltj. Subpubic ligament. 

17, IS, 19. Capsular ligaments. 



1. Ligament of patella. 

3. Internal lateral ligament 



Fig. 3.— Ligaments of Left Knee=Joint. 

I 4. Capsular ligament. 



Figs. 4 and 5.— Ligaments of Left Knee=Joint— Internal Anterior View (4) ; Posterior: 
View (5). 



1, 2. Semilunar cartilages. 
3, 4. Crucial ligaments. 



If: 



Capsular ligament of head of fibula. 
Interosseous membrane of leg. 



Fig. 6. -Ligaments of Sole of Left Foot. 



1. Astragalo=calcnncan ligaments. 

2. Calcaneocuboid ligament. 

3. Calcaneonavicular ligament. 

4. Cuboideo=navicular ligament. 

5. 6, 7. Cuneiform ligaments. 

8, 11. Cuboideo=metatarsal ligaments. 



0, 10, 12. Metatarsal ligaments. 

13. Fibrocartilaginous sheaths for flexoi 

tendons. 

1 4, 15. Lateral ligaments of phalanges^ 
hi. Crucial ligaments. 

17. Intersesamoid ligaments. 



Fig. 7. -Ligaments of Left Foot-Internal Surface. 



1. Internal lateral or deltoid ligament. 

2. Posterior ligament of ankle. 

3. Posterior astragalo=calcanean lig 

me nt. 

4. Plantar calcaneocuboid ligament. 

5. 6. Navicular ligaments. 



7, 8, 9. Naviculo=euneiform ligaments. 

10. Dorsal intercuneiform ligament. 

11. Dorsal ligament of base of first meta- 

tarsal bone. 

12. Plantar ligament. 

13. Internal lateral ligaments of toes. 



Fig. 8. -Ligaments of Left Foot -External and Dorsal Surfaces. 

, 15. Dorsal naviculo=cuneiform 



1. Interosseous membrane of leg. 

2. Posterior tibiofibular ligaments. 
3,4. Anterior tibiofibular ligaments 

5, ti, 7. Lateral ligaments of ankle. 

8. Tarsal apparatus ligamentosus. 

9, 10. Calcaneocuboid ligaments. 

11, 12, 13. Donsal navicular ligaments, 



liga- 
ments. 

Dorsal intercuneiform ligaments. 

8, 19. Dorsal ligaments of tarsus and 
metatarsus. 

External lateral ligaments of toes. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE MUSCLES. 



The Muscles are the moving organs of the animal frame. 
They constitute by their size and number the great bulk of the 
outer soft tissues of the body, upon which they bestow form 
and symmetry. In the extremities they are situated around 
the bones, which they invest and defend, while they form to 
some of the joints their principal protection. In the trunk 
they are spread out to enclose the cavities and constitute a 
defensive wall, capable of yielding to internal pressure, and 
again returning to its original position. Their color presents 
the deep=red that is characteristic of flesh, and their form is 
variously modified to execute the varied range of movements 
which they are required to effect. 

Composition of Muscles. — Muscle is composed of a num- 
ber of parallel fibers, placed side by side, supported and held 
together by a delicate web of areolar or cellular tissue, so that, 
if it were possible to remove the muscular substance, we 
should have remaining a beautiful, recticular framework, 
possessing the exact form and size of 
the muscle without its color and so- 
lidity. The fibers are separated by a 
very elastic, delicate membrane, the 
sarcolemma, but are bound together A Muscle. 

into bundles, 01' fasciculi, by an are- ., Microscopic view, showing the 
7 <* hbrils at one end and the disk or 

olar membrane, or sheath, the in- tells °* tllp fi °ei- at the other. 
ternal perimysium. The aggregation of fasciculi constituting 
a muscle, is in turn bound together by the external perimy- 
sium. 

The microscope shows that these fibers are made up of mi- 
nute filaments (fibrils), and that each fibril is composed of 

37 




38 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

cells arranged like a string of beads. This gives the muscle 
its striped or striated appearance. The cells are filled with a 
fluid or semi=fluid mass of living (protoplasmic) matter, 
which, when separated, appears of a yellowish, sirupy con- 
sistence, and is known as the muscle plasma. 

Contractility is a peculiar and wonderful property pos- 
sessed by muscles, resulting from the elastic nature of the 
muscular tissue. Contraction is effected by an effort of the 
will, by cold, by certain kinds of irritation, by a sharp blow, 
etc. When a muscle contracts it becomes shorter and thicker, 
drawing the ends nearer together. Bending the elbow nicely 
illustrates this action. The biceps muscle on the front of the 
arm can be seen and felt to become shorter and thicker as it 
contracts. Contractility does not always cease at death, as a 
contraction of the muscles is frequently noticed in certain 
cold-blooded animals long after the head has been severed 
from the body. 

Kinds of Muscles. — There are two classes of muscles, 
voluntary and involuntary. The voluntary muscles are those 
capable of being put in motion by the will, and are composed 
of reddish fibers. Each one is intended to aid in some move- 
ment of the body. All muscles lying on the outside of the 
skeleton are voluntary. Involuntary muscles, on the other 
hand, are not capable of being put into action by the will, 
and are composed of paler fibers, which differ also in shape. 
Involuntary muscular tissue enters into the formation of the 
interna] organs, as the stomach, intestines, etc. The heart 
is an involuntary muscle, but its fiber is similar in appearance 
ami structure to those of the voluntary type. The muscles 
which move the arms, legs, and head are under the control of 
i he will, while the heart heats on day and night. The eyelid 
combines both classes of muscles, so that we wink constantly, 
yet we may restrain or accelerate that motion. 

Arrangement of Muscles.— The muscles are generally 

arranged in pairs, one expanding as the other contracts, giv- 



THE MUSCLES 39 

ing the bone to which they are attached its backward and 
forward, or other movements. 

Grasp the arm tightly above the elbow and bend the fore- 
arm; the muscle on the inside (biceps) can be felt as it swells 
and becomes hard and prominent, while the outside muscle 
(triceps) relaxes. Straighten the arm, and the conditions 
are reversed. When the muscles of one side of the face become 
palsied, those on the opposite side draw the mouth that way. 

Modification of Muscles. — Muscles present various modi- 
fications in the arrangement of their fibers in relation to their 
tendinous structure. Sometimes they are completely longi- 
tudinal, and terminate at each extremity in tendon, the en- 
tire muscle being fusiform in its shape; in other situations 
they are dispersed like the rays of a fan, converging to a 
tendinous point, as the temporal, pectoral, gluteal, etc., and 
constitute a radial muscle. Again they are penniform, con- 
verging like the plumes of a pen to one side of the tendon, 
which runs the whole length of a mnscle, as in the peroneal ; 
or bipenniform, converging to both sides of the tendon. In 
other muscles the fibers pass obliquely from the surface spread 
out on one side (of a tendinous expansion), to that of an- 
other extended on the opposite side, as in the semi-membran- 
ous ; or they are composed of penniform and bipenniform fas- 
ciculi, as in the deltoid, and constitute a compound muscle.' 

Attachment of Muscles. — Muscles are attached to the 
periosteum and perichondrium of bone and cartilage, to the 
subcutaneous, areolar tissue, and to ligaments. The more 
fixed extremity of a mnscle is called the origin, and the more 
movable, the insertion. 

Classification. — The muscles may be arranged in conform- 
ity with the general divisions of the body, into those of the 
head and face, of the neck, of the trunk, of the upper extrem- 
ities, and of the lower extremities. 

The Tendons are white, glistening, fibrous cords, or bands. 
They vary in length and thickness, are strong and only 



40 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

slightly clastic, have few blood=vessels and nerves, and serve 
to connect the muscles with the structure on which they act. 
This union is so firm that, under extreme violence, the bone 
itself rather breaks than permits of the separation of the 
tendon from its attachment. The muscular fibers spring from 
the sides of the tendon, allowing more of them to act upon 
the bone than if directly attached. This mode of attachment 
gives strength and elegance. 

Aponeuroses are glistening, pearly-white, fibrous mem- 
branes, similar in structure and use to the tendons, from 
which they differ, principally in having a fiat form. They are 
destitute of nerves and blood=vessels, except the thicker ones. 
which are sparingly supplied with the latter. They art- 
classed as (<i) aponeuroses of insertion, when at the extrem- 
ities of muscles, attaching them to the bone; (b) aponeuroses 
of iutersectiou, when they interrupt the continuity of muscle, 
being continuous on both sides with muscular fibers; (c) 
aponeuroses of investment, when they ensheath the entire 
limb, or the individual muscle, preventing its displacement. 
Many aponeuroses serve both for investment ami insertion. 

Fasciae {fascia, a bandage) are fibro-areolar or aponeu- 
rotic laminae of variable thickness and strength, found in all 
regions of the body, investing, the soft and more delicate 
structures. They surround and bind together the muscles of 
i he extremities. Fascia* are divided into superficial, or fibro- 
areolar, and dee}), or aponeurotic. 

Superficial Fascia is composed of fibro-areolar tissue and 
is found immediately beneath the skin over nearly the entire 
body, varying in thickness in the different parts, being very 
thick in the groin and very thin on the palms of the hands 
and soles of the feet. It is composed of two or more layers, 
between which are found the superficial vessels, nerves, and 
lymphatics; connects the skin to the sub=jacent parts; facil- 
itates the movements of the skin ; serves as a soft and safe re- 



c 

THE MUSCLES 

SEVEN PLATES-XI.-XVU 






^P^*^-,;-|W <• :-..*g*4g||K ' "" 



PLATE XI. 



nUSCLES OF HEAD AND NECK. 



Fig. 1— Muscles of Face and Neck— Anterior Surfaces. 



Occipito=lTontalis. 

Teniiun of oceipito=frontalis. 

Orbicularis palpebrarum. 

Levator labii superioris ala±que nasi. 

Levator labii superioris prop ri lis. 

Levator anguli oris. 

Buccinator. 

Orbicularis oris. 

Quadratus menti. 



17. Levator menti. 

IS. Masseter. 

19. Temporal. 

-I), 21, 22. Sternocleidomastoid. 

23. Sternohyoid. 

25. Anterior margin of trapezius 

27. Levator anguii scapulae. 

28. Scalenus anticus 

29. Scalenus medius. 



Fig. 2.— Muscles of Neck-Right Side. 



D. Mastoid procotw. 

JJ. Occipital bone. 

F. Clavicle. 

(t. Scapula. 

1. Manubrium. 

14. Sternohyoid. 

15. Sternothyroid. 
Pi, 17. Omohyoid. 

20. Rectus cipiti* anticus major. 



II. Acromion. 
1. Coracoid process. 
K. First rib. 



Scalenus medius. 
Levator anguli scapulae 
Splenius capitis. 
Sternocleidomastoid. 
Deltoid. 



Inferior maxilLiry. 
Os hyoi<3fS. 
Thyroid gland. 
Tr»:hea. 



Muscles of Neck— Front Vievr. 



F. Mastoid process. 

(jr. Clavicle. 

H. Manubrium sterni. 



1.2. Digastric. 
iJ. Thyrohyoid. 
18. Sternohyoid, 
io. Omohyoid. 



18. Sternothyroid. 

19. Scalenus anticus. 

20. Scalenus posticus. 



fig. 4.— Deep Muscles of Right Side and Neck. 



A. Mastoid proocr.s. 

Jl. Zygomatic arch. 

C. Meatus auditorius oxtornus 

O. Superior maxillary. 

1, 1. Orbicularis oris. 

2. Buccinator. 

3. Superior constrictor of pharynx. 
6. Middle constrictor of pharynx. 

8. Mylohyoid. 

9. Thyrohyoid. 

10. inferior constrictor of pharynx. 



K. Trachea. 

A'. Acromion. 

O. Coracoid process. 



13. Rectus capitis anticus najor. 

14, 15, 10. Scaleni. 

17. Levator anguli scapulae. 

18. Splenius capitis. 

20. Superior rhomboid. 
22. Supraspinatus. 



PLATE XII. 

MUSCLES OF POSTERIOR PART OF NECK, TRUNK, PHARYNX, 
PALATE, LOWER JAW, AND TONGUE. 



A. Basilar process. 
Jj. Petros bone. 

1, 2, 3. Constrictors of pharynx, 
ti. Mylohyoid. 



Fig. 1.— Muscles of Back of Pharynx and Lower Jaw. 

I G. Esophagus. 



Fig. 2.— Muscles of Palate and Throat -Posterior View. 



Basilar process. 
Petrous bone. 
Ramus of lower jaw. 
Posterior nares. 
Condyle of lower jaw. 



1, 2, 3. Constrictors of pharynx. 
5. Levator palati mollis. 



Base of tongue. 
Epiglottis. 
Cricoid cartilag 
Esophagus. 
Trachea. 



fi. Circumfiexus palati mollis. 
7. Crico=arytenoideu.s posticus 



Fig. 3— Muscles of Tongue-Lateral View of Right Side. 



A. Body of lower jaw. 

B. Ramus of lower jaw. 
D. Hyoid bone. 

1. Lingualis. 

2. Genioglossus. 

3. Hyoglossus. 



G. Geniohyoid. 

8. Thyrohyoid membrane, 



Fig. 4.— Internal Muscles of the Lower Jaw. 



A. Body of sphenoid bone. 

B. Petrous bone. 

C. D, E. Lower jaw. 

1. Pterygoideus internus. 

2. Pterygoideus externus. 
S. Masseter. 



F. Hard palate. 
II. Posterior nares. 



Mylohyoideus (divided). 
Genioglossus (divided). 



Fig. 5.— Muscles of Soft Palate. 



J. Sphenoid bone. 

M^ Petros bone. 

€. Condyle of inferior maxillary. 



Levator palati mollis. 
Circumfiexus palati molli 



D. Ramus of inferior maxillary. 

E. Hard palate. 

II. Posterior nares. 

5. Palatijdiaryngeus. 



Fig. 6— Muscles of Posterior Surface of Neck and Upper Part of Thorax 

A. Occipital bone. I C. Mastoid process. 

H. Superior semilunar line. 

1. Splenius capitis. I 3. 

2, Splenius colli. I 7. 



Serratus posticus super 
Longissimus dorsi. 



.1. Occipital bone. 
B. Mastoid process. 

1. Biventer cervicis. 
Complexus cervicis. 



Fig. 7.— Deep Muscles of Neck and Bad 
I F. Ilium. 



Trachelomastoideus. 
Transversal is cervicis. 
Cervicalis ascendeus. 
LnmboeoHlnlis. 

Longissirrr.;* d:>rsi. 



8. Sacrolumbalis. 

9. Spinalis dorsi. 

10. Spinalis cervicis. 

11. Semispinals dorsi. 

12. Levatores costarun 

13. Intercostals. 









^ 






46 



PLATE XIII. 



MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK, ARMS, AND FEET. 

Fig. 1.— Muscles of Face, Trunk, Arms, and Upper Part of Thighs — Anterior View. 



A. Occipitofrontal! s tendon. 

B. Malar bone. 

C Inferior maxillary. 

D. Thyroid gland. 

E. Trachea. 

F. Clavicle. 

Gr. Manubrium of sternum. 

II. Body of sternum. 

I. Coracoid process. 

1. Frontalis. 

2. Pyramidalis nasi. 

3. Attollens auris. 

4. Attrahens auris. 

5. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 

6. Levator labii superioris alaeque n; 

with compressor nasi. 

7. Levator labii superioris proprius. 
S. Zygomaticus minor. 

9. Zygomaticus major. 

11. Masaeter. 

12. Buccinator. 

13. Triangularis menti. 
10. Orbicularis oris. 

17. Platysma=myoides. 

IS. Sternocleidomastoid. 

19. Sternohyoid. 

20. Scale ni. 

•21. Pectoralis major. 

•J2. Pectoralis minor. 

13. Subclavian. 

24. Seratus magnus anticus. 

25. External oblique (abdominis). 

26. Linea alba. 

27. Rectus abdominis. 

28. Transverse aponeuroses of rectus- 

abdom'nis. 

29. Pyramidalis abdominis. 



7T. Acromion. 

L. First rib. 

M. second rib. 

.V. Third rib. 

O. Fourth rib. 

P. Symphysis pubis. 

Q. Anterior superior spine of ilium. 

li. Humerus. 

*S'. Interclavicular ligament. 

30. Obliquisinternus. 

31. Poupart's ligament. 
34, 35. Abdominal rings. 

37. Deltoid. 

38. Coracobrachial! s. 

39. Short head of biceps. 

40. Long head of biceps. 

41. Biceps. 

42. Subscapular. 

43. Brachialis. 

44. Internal head of biceps. 

45. Pronator teres. 

46. Supinator longus. 

47. Flexor carpi radialis. 

48. Palmaris longus. 

49. Flexor carpi ulnaris. 

52. Anterior annular ligament of carpus. 

53. Abductor of thumb. 

54. Palmaris brevis. 

5-5. Adductor of thumb. 

63. Adductor indicis. 

64. Lumbricales. 

06. Fascia lata femoris. 

68. Falciform process of fascia lata. 

69. Adductor longus. 

70. External femoral ring. 
70 2 . Sartorius. 



Fig. 2.— Plantar Fascia or Aponeurosis of Right Foot. 

Tig. 3.— Plantar Muscles, First Layer — Inferior Surface, Right Foot. 

Fig. 4.— Second Layer of Plantar Muscles of Right Foot. 

Fig. 5.— Third Layer of Plantar Muscles of Right Foot. 

Fig. 6.— Fourth Layer of Dorsal Muscles of Right Foot. 



PLATE XIV. 



MUSCLES OF TRUNK, NECK, AND ARMS. 

(Posterior View, with some of Anterior Surface.) 

Fig 1.— Muscles of Trunk, Upper Part of Thighs, and Arms, 



A. Occipitofrontal is tendon. 

B. Superior semicircular line of occiput. 



II. Crest of ilium. 



Gemellus inferior. 

Quadratus femoris. 

Obturator externus. 

Vastus externus. 

Semimembranosus. 

Adductor magnus. 

Infraspinatus. 

Teres minor. 

Teres major. 

Deltoid. 

Triceps brachials. 

Long head of triceps. 

External head of triceps. 

Internal head of triceps. 

Anconeus. 

Supinator longus. 

Extensor digitorum commuu 

Extensor carpi ulnaris. 

Abductor pollicis longus. 

Flexor digitorum communis. 



Fig. 2.— Deep Muscles of Neck— Anterior View. 

Fig. 3.— Deep Muscles of Back of Neck. 

Fig. 4.— Tendons and Tendinous Sheaths on Posterior Surface of Carpus. 

Fig. 5.— Tendons and Tendinous Aponeuroses of Right Wrist and Hand* 



1. 


Frontalis. 


28. 


3. 


Attollens auris. 


29. 


4. 


Retrahentes auris. 


30. 


5. 


Attrahens auris. 


31. 


6. 


Masseter. 


32. 


7. 


Occipitalis. 


33. 


8, 


8, 8. Sternocleidomastoid. 


35. 


10. 


Splenius colli. 


36. 


11. 


Complexus cervicis. 


37. 


12. 


Levator auguli scapulae. 


38. 


13. 


Trapezius. 


39. 


14. 


Rhomboideus minor. 


40. 


15. 


Rhomboideus major. 


41. 


16. 


Latissimus dorsi. 


42. 


17. 


Serratus posticus inferior. 


43. 


22. 


Obliquus abdominis intern us. 


45. 


L':i. 


Gluteus maximus ( divided;. 


46. 


21. 


Gluteus medius. 


47. 


25. 


Piriformis. 


50. 


26. 


Gemellus superior. 


52. 



PLATE XV. 



DEEP MUSCLES OF ABDOMEN, DIAPHRAGM, AND PELVIS. 



,i. Inferior border of thorax. 

b. Xiphoid process. 

e. Cut edges of oblique and transversalis 

muscles. 
d. Symphysis pubis. 



Costal portion of diaphragm. 
Tendon of diaphragm. 
Internal crus of diaphragm. 
Middle crus of diaphragm. 
External crus of diaphragm. 
Opening of vena cava. 
Esophageal opening. 
Aortic opening. 
Psoas major. 
Psoas minor. 
CJuadratus lumboruna. 



e. Horizontal ramus of pubes. 

/. Lumbar vertebrre. 

g. Sacrum. 

h. Coccyx. 

i. Crest of ilium. 

12. Transversalis and fascia transversalis, 

13. Iliacus internus. 

14. Pyriformis. 

15. Levator ani. 

16. Sartorius. 

17. Rectus femoris. 

18. Pectineus. 

19. Adductor longns. 

20. Tensor fascise latae. 

21. Gluteus mediuts 



PLATE XVI, 



MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR AND EXTERNAL SURFACES 
OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES. 



Fig. 1.— Muscles of Anterior &xrf?.cr> of Lower Extremities. 



B. Anterior snperiour spinous process. 
D. Symphysis pubis. 
F. Patella. 



Crest of ilium. 

Trochanter major. 

Trochanter minor. 

Tibia. 

Malleolus interims. 

Malleolus externus. 

Fibula. 

Linca alba. 



Obliquis abdominis extci 
Transversalis abdominis 
Tensor fasciae lata?. 
Gluteus medius. 
Iliac ns inter j.us. 
Psoas major. 
Pectineus. 
Sartorius. 
Adductor longus. 
Rectus femoris. 
Tendon of biceps femori 
Ligament of patella. 
Vastus in tern us. 



(r. Tuberosity of tibia. 
L. Anterior annular ligament of ankle= 
joint. 

o. Poupart's ligament. 
p. Internal pillar of external abdominal 

ring. 
q. External pillar of external abdominal 

ring. 
r. External abdominal ring, 
.s-. Internal abdominal ring. 
t. Posterior boundary of inguinal canal. 

14. Vastus externus. 

15. Gracilis. 

16. Adductor magnus. 

17. Tibialis anticus. 

IS. Extensor longus pollicis pedis. 

19. Extensor digitorum communis 

longus. 

20. Peroneus tertins. 

21. Peroneus longus et brevis. 
2 1 ,. (Gastrocnemius. 

25- Extensor digitorum communis 

brevis. 
23. Soleus. 



Fig. 2.— Muscles of External Surface of III 

A. Crest of ilium. 

B. Anterior superior spine of ilium. 

c. External condyles of knee=joint. I 

d. Tibia. I 
/. Anterior annular ligament of ankle. | 

1. Tensor fascia? lata?. 

2. Fascia lata. 

3. Gluteus medius. 

4. Gluteus maximus. 

5. Sartorius. 

6. Rectus femoris. 

7. Vastus externus. 

8. Biceps femoris ( caput, longu m } 

9. ( 'aput breve bicipitis femoiis. 

10. Tibialis anticus. 

11. Extensordigitorumcommumslongr, 



f :t Side of Pelvis and Lower Extremii 
E. Patella. 



g. External portion of annular liga- 
ment. 
h. Tuberosity of fifth metatarsal bone 

12. Tendon of Achilles 

13. Peroneus tertius. 

14. Peroneus longus. 

16. Sheaths of long and short peroneal 

tendons. 

17. Soleus. 

18. Gastrocnemius. 

20. Extensor digitorum communis 

brevis. 

21. Adductor digiti minimi. 




54 



PLATE XV I i. 



MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR AND INNER SURFACES OF PELVIS 
AND LOWER EXTREMITIES. 

Fig. 1. -Muscles of Posterior Surface of Pelvis and Lower Extremities 



G. 


Trochanter major. 




Q 


Internal malleolus. 


jr. 
i: 


Sacrum. 

External malleolus. 




" 


Tendon of Achilles. 


a. 


Crest of ilium. 




k 


Greater sacrosciatic ligamen; 


ft. 


Ilium. 
Coccyx. 




I 


Lineaaspera. 
lemur. 


<i. 


Tuber of ischium. 




n 


Popliteal fossa. 




Ascending ramus ol 


ischium. 


o 


Fibula. 


i\ 


Descending ramus < 


f pubes. 


s 


Oblique line of tibia. 


'■ 


Lesser sacrosciatic 1 


gameut, 






1. 


Gluteus maxim us. 




15 


Inferior opening of Hunter's cana 


•j.. 


Gluteus medius. 




16 


Gracilis. 




Pyriformis. 




17 


Sartorius. 


-i! 


Gemellus superior. 




18 


Vastus externus. 


o. 


Obturator interims. 




1!) 


Popliteus. 


<>. 


Gemellus inferior. 




20 


Gastrocnemius. 


7. 


Quadratus femoris. 




21 


Externa] head of gastrocnemius! 


8. 


Obturator externus. 




22 


Internal head of gastrocnemius 


y. 


Long head of biceps 


femoris. 


23 


Plantaris. 


10. 


Short head of biceps 


femoris. 


25. 


Tendon of Achilles. 


n. 


Tendon of biceps fei 


mris. 


2li 


Sole us. 


12. 


Semitendinosus. 




27 


Peroneus longus. 


13. 


Semimembranosus. 




28. 


Peroneus brevis. 


14. 


Adductor magnus. 




29. 


Flexor pollicis pedis longm 



Fig 2.— Muscles of Inner Surface of Pelvis, Thigh, Leg, and Foot 



A. 


Crest of ilium. 


B. 


Sacrum. 


E. 


Symphysis pubis. 


r. 


Coccyx. 


d. 


Linea innominata interna. 


in. 


Ascending ramus of ischium. 


"■ 


Anterior sacral foramen. 


1. 


Psoas major. 


•J. 


Iliacus interims. 




obturator interims. 


4. 


Pyriformis. 


5. 


Sartorius. 


6. 


Adductor longus. 


7. 


Gracilis. 


8. 


Vastus internus. 


9. 


Rectus femoris. 


ID. 


Adductor magiins. 


11. 


Semimembranosus. 


12. 


Semitendinosu" 



Patella. 

Internal surface of tibia. 



Tuber of ischium. 

Internal condyles of knee=joini 

Internal malleolus. 



13. Gastrocnemius (internal head). 

14. Soleus. 

15. Tendon of Achilles. 

16. Flexor digitorum communis longut 

perforans. 

17. Flexor pollicis pedis longus. 

18. Tibialis posticus. 

19. Tendo tibialis antici. 

20. Tendo extensoris pollicis pedis long' 

21. Adductor pollicis pedis. 

22. Gluteus maxim us. 



THE MUSCLES 57 

pository for the passage of the cutaneous vessels and nerves ; 
and retains the warmth of the body. 

Deep Fascia is a dense, inelastic, unyielding, fibrous mem- 
brane, forming sheaths for the muscles, affording them broad 
surfaces for attachment and binding down the whole in a 
shapely mass. It consists of shining, parallel, tendinous fibers, 
connected together by other fibers disposed in a reticular 
manner. The deep fascia is usually exposed on removal of the 
superficial, forming a, strong investment, which not only binds 
down the muscles of each region collectively, but gives a sep- 
arate sheath to each, as well as to the vessels and nerves. 

Wonders Of the Muscles. — The action of many muscles is 
required to keep the human body in an upright position. The 
center of gravity is so high up, and the joints work so easily, 
that were it not for the muscular action the skeleton would 
constantly topple over. But for the steadying effect of the 
muscles of the neck the head would be forced to respond to its 
tendency to fall forward. The strong muscles of the back 
restrain the hips 1 natural forward incline, while the muscles 
of the calf counteract the pulling forward of the great muscles 
of the thigh, acting over the knee-cap. So it is with other 
sets of muscles, all acting so perfectly that they are un- 
thought of until science calls attention to them. 

Muscular Sense is useful in many ways. The sensation 
of weight is felt in lifting an object. Cultivation of this sense 
enables one to form a very precise estimate of the weight of a 
body by simply lifting it. Walking is a perilous performance 
which constant practice alone has made safe. Some author- 
ities define walking as perpetual falling with constant self- 
recovery. In running we simply incline our bodies more and 
fall faster. 

Development of the Muscles. — Proper exercise develops 
and improves the muscles, while violent, unguarded exercise 
is injurious. A muscle remaining entirely idle loses the power 
to take up the nourishment provided, becomes soft and weak, 



58 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

growing constantly smaller, and finally the muscular tissue 
almost wholly disappears. Exercise increases the flow of 
blood to the muscles, promoting their nourishment and stim- 
ulating their growth. The large, hard, and strong muscles of 
men engaged in manual labor, contrasted with the thin and 
flabby muscles of professional men, who are unaccustomed to 
exercise, clearly show the effects of exercise. Exercise is es- 
sential to the health of the whole body, increasing the circu- 
lation and power of breathing, and stimulating every part of 
the body to a healthy growth. To obtain the best advantage 
exercise should be regular and systematic, and taken in 
proper amounts. 

Number of Muscles. — There are about five hundred mus- 
cles in the human body, each having a special use, and all 
working together harmoniously and perfsctly. Many of the 
externa] muscles can be seen and traced on Plates XI to 
XVII, but beneath these are still larger numbers, many being 
quite tiny and delicate, too small to be seen with the unaided 
eye. it is not necessary in a work of this kind to describe all 
of the muscles — only a few that serve as guides to the arteries 
and veins which are usually employed in embalming. A brief 
description is also given of the diaphragm, and of several lo- 
cations, a knowledge of which is deemed of importance to the 
emba liner. 

The Sternocleidomastoid arises by two heads from the 
sternum and the inner third of the clavicle, and passes up- 
ward and backward to be inserted into the mastoid process of 
the temporal bone and the superior curved line of the occip- 
ital bone, behind the ear. The anterior border serves as a 
guide to the common carotid artery and internal jugular vein. 

The Biceps arises by two heads, the long head from the 
upper margin of the glenoid cavity, the short head from the 
apex of the coracoid process of the scapula, and is inserted 
into the back of the tuberosity of the radius and the fascia 
of the forearm. The inner border serves as a guide to the 
brachial artery and basilic vein. 



THE MUSCLES 



59 



The Sartorius arises from the anterior superior spinous 
process of the ilium (front part of the hip=bone) and half of 
the notch below it, and passes obliqueh' downward and in- 
ward, to be inserted into the upper internal surface of the 
tibia, It is the longest muscle of the body. The inner border 
serves as a guide to the femoral artery and vein. 

The Adductor LongUS has its origin in the front surface 
of the pubic bone, and is inserted in the inner border of the 
middle third of the femnr. It forms the inner boundary of 
Scarpa's triangle. Its action is to draw the lower extremities 
together. 



'Ztforn, ,Cart.H* 



tyw) 




Fig. 3. The Diaphragm, 
Showing Under Surface, with Openings, etc. 



The Diaphragm (a partition wall) is a thin musculo- 
fibrons septum, placed obliquely across the trunk, separating 



60 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

the thorax from the abdomen, and forming the floor of the 
former cavity and the roof of the latter. It is the great muscle 
of respiration. It has three openings, the aortic, esophageal, 
and that of the vena cava, but is impervious to liquids con- 
tained in, or injected into, either cavity. 

Scarpa's Triangle is situated in the upper front part of 
the thigh, with the base upward, which is bounded by Pou- 
part's ligament; the outer border is bounded by the sartorius 
muscle, and the inner by the abductor longus muscle. The 
femoral artery passes out from the abdomen at the center of 
the base of the triangle (Pouparfs ligament), and extends 
downward through the center of the triangle to the apex. 

Hunter's Canal is the canal through which the femoral 
vessels pass to the popliteal space. It is formed by the vastus 
internus muscle and the adductor niagnus and longus mus- 
cles on either side, and a strong fibrous band passing over 
from the vastus to the tendons of the adductors. 

The Popliteal Space, commonly railed the hollow of the 
knee, occupies the space behind the knee, including the lower 
third of the thigh and upper fifth of the leg. 

Axillary Space.— The axilla (armpit) is a pyramidal 
space, situated between the upper and lateral part of the chest 
and the inner side of the arm. It extends from the interval 
between the two scalene muscles on the first rib to the 
humerus at the point where the pectoral muscles are inserted. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE ABSORBENTS. 



THE SKIN. 

The Skin or Integument {intego, to cover) is the first 
tissue that is incised in cutting into the body. It is a tough, 
thin, elastic investment, with which the entire surface of the 
body is covered. Its perfect elasticity adapts it to every mo- 
tion of the body. The skin surface of an adult of average size 
is about sixteen square feet. It is not a mere covering, but is 
an active and important excretory and absorbent organ. Like 
the joints, it is self -oiling, but for a different reason, namely 
to preserve its smoothness and delicacy. It also replaces 
itself as fast as worn out. The skin varies in thickness in 
different parts of the body, being quite thick where exposed 
to friction and pressure, as on the soles of the feet and palms 
of the hands. At the openings of the body, as the mouth, it 
becomes merged into the mucous membrane. 

Structure of the Skin. — The skin consists of two distinct 
layers, outer and inner, and also a thin middle layer, which 
is attached to the under surface of the outer layer. 

Cuticle, Epidermis, Scarf-skin. — The outer layer is vari- 
ously called the cuticle (cuticula, little skin), epidermis (epi, 
upon; derma, skin), and scarf-skin, and is what is commonly 
styled the skin. It forms a defensive covering to the surface 
of the true skin ; limits the evaporation of watery vapor from 
the free surface; is the part raised by a blister, and that is 
detached and slips in a case of so-called "skin=slip." If the 
soft or middle layer is removed from the under surface the 
cuticle is perfectly transparent. It neither bleeds nor suffers 
from heat or cold ; neither does it possess blood=vessels. It 
can be torn or cut without producing hemorrhage or pain. 



62 



CHAMPION TEXT -BO OK ON EMBALMING 



The cuticle is composed entirely of small, flat cells or scales, 
which are constantly being shed from the surface in the form 
of scurf or dandruff, but are constantly being renewed from 
the cutis or inner layer of the skin. In the usual discolor- 
ations the outer layer is not affected, there being no blood= 
vessels to fill with blood ; neither is it stained by any coloring 
matter. 

Corium, Derma, Cutis Vera.— The inner layer is called 
corium, derma, and cutis vera (true skin), all meaning the 
same thing. The term •'co- 
rium,"' though used to desig- Epide™ 
nate the entire layer, is more 
properly applied to the deep- 
er and principal portion of 
this layer. It consists of 
strong, interlacing, fibro=are- 
olar tissue, and merges into 
the fatty tissue beneath, in De " 
which is found an abundance 
of blood=vessels, nerves, lym- 
phatics, and glands. The su- 

i 
perficial or papillary portion 

of the layer consists of numerous sm 
vascular elevations, the papilla?, which rise perpendicularly 
from its surface into the rete mucosum. The papillae form 
the essential element of the organ of touch; are conical in 
shape; average about one hundredth of an inch in length; 
are few, short, and minute on the general surface of the body, 
where there is slight sensibility, ami long, large, and closely 
aggregated on other parts, where there is great sensitiveness, 
as in the palmar surface of the hands, the bottom of the 
feet, etc. 

The derma is filled with blood-vessels, the smallest sub- 
divisions of arteries and veins, and with the network of capil- 
laries between them. These capillaries are so small, and lie 




4. Section of Skin Magnified 

highly sensitive, and 



THE ABSORBENTS 63 

so closely together, that in puncturing the inner layer with a 
fine needle, many of them will be ruptured, and, in the living- 
body, blood will ooze from the wound. It is these vessels, 
with the addition of those in the subcutaneous tissues, that 
fill with blood, producing the red or dark=bluish discolor- 
ations. 

Rete MllCOSUm. — The middle layer is commonly called the 
soft or pigment layer. The technical name is the rete mu- 
cosum. This layer is made up of small grains, forming a pig- 
ment, which gives to the skin its color and complexion. This 
matter varies in color in the different races. In the negro it 
is almost entirely black; in the European, various shades, 
from the most pronounced brunette to the lightest blond ; in 
the Mala t yan, it is of a brownish ; in the Mongolian, of a yel- 
lowish; and in the American Indian, of a reddish or copper 
color. In the purest complexion there is some of the pigment. 
Exposure to the sun readily tans, while the African, living 
for a. time in the secluded forest, or away from the sun, loses 
much of his normal color. 

The rete mucosum softens quickly after death by decompo- 
sition, allowing the cuticle to become detached, which will 
slip if anything comes in contact with it. This is called "skin- 
slip." It will also become detached in cases of dropsy where 
the water accumulates, as the cuticle, being extremely com- 
pact, will not allow the water to pass through it rapidly. 

Uses of the Skin. — As an excretory organ, the skin, re- 
moves certain waste material from the body. This process of 
elimination is produced by the perspiration, or sweat. This 
office of the skin is a very important one. If the skin were to 
be covered with a coat of varnish, or other impervious cover- 
ing, thus preventing sweating, death would soon result. The 
amount of sweat secreted in a day averages about two pints, 
varying according to weather, amount of exercise, etc. The 
sudoriferous or sweat-glands are small tubes, opening in the 
outside of the skin and coiled up just below the true skin. 
They cover every portion of the skin, being numerous and im- 



64 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

portant in their office, secreting the perspiration. The skin 
serves also as an organ of sensation, the nerves conveying the 
sense of touch, pain, and temperature being situated in it. It 
assists in the respiratory process, slightly absorbing oxygen, 
and giving off carbonic acid gas. The skin has, likewise, an 
absorptive power by which certain substances are carried into 
the system during life. This power of absorption ceases with 
death. 

The MUCOUS Membrane is continuous with the skin, be- 
ginning where the skin seems to stop, at the external openings 
of the body, as the mouth, uose, etc., and lines the alimentary 
canal from the lips to the anus, as well as all the other cav- 
ities and canals that have external openings. It is analogous 
to the skin in structure, consisting of two layers, a deep, 
fibrous layer, containing blood-vessels, and a superficial, 
bloodless one, the epithelium. It is, however, much redder 
than the skin, as is seen in the lips; more sensitive; more li- 
able to bleed ; and secretes a tenacious, viscid fluid, the mucus, 
with which it keeps itself continually moistened. The epithe- 
lium is composed of one or more layers of flattened cells, 
called epithelial cells. The endothelium of the blood=vessels 
is analogous. 

Subcutaneous Tissues. — Immediately underneath the 
skin, into which it merges, lies the fibro^areolar, cellular or 
connective tissue, which connects the skiu to the subjacent 
parts. The term ''connective" is peculiarly applicable to this 
tissue, as it is the great connective medium by which the dif- 
ferent parts of the body are held together, and is consequently 
found throughout the body. The terms "cellular*" and "are- 
olar," on the other hand, are given because its meshes are 
easily distended and separated into spaces, or areohp, which 
open freely into each other and are easily blown up with air 
or gas, or permeated by fluid. It thus affords a ready exit for 
inflammatory or other effused fluids, and for gases. This tis- 
sue also enters into the structure of the derma, mucous mem- 
brane, tendons, ligaments, etc. 



THE ABSORBENTS 65 

Under the subcutaneous layer of the connective tissue, coex- 
tensive with the skin, is the inelastic, superficial fascia, cov- 
ering and binding together the muscles. Beneath this, and 
still more closely investing the muscles and vessels, is the 
deep fascia.. 

Within the meshes of the areolar, connective tissue is to be 
found adipose (fatty) tissue, variable in quantity in different 
parts of the body and very variable in different persons. The 
fat is contained in tiny cells, of which there is said to be sixty = 
five millions in a cubic inch of fat. In a fleshy person the 
adipose tissue is very abundant. Owing to the presence of 
this fatty tissue in the subcutaneous layer, this layer is some- 
times styled the fatty layer. 

An understanding of these subcutaneous tissues is of the 
utmost importance to the embalmer. The skin being made up 
of compact tissues, liquids and gases, will transude through it 
very slowly, while they pass through the underlying tissues 
very freely. Gases and fluids are liable, therefore, to accumu- 
late underneath the skin after death, causing trouble for the 
embalmer, unless treated properly. Transudation of blood 
into these tissues frequently causes discoloration. On the 
other hand, on account of the loose, open character of these 
subcutaneous tissues, a channel is furnished for the injection 
of fluid to all parts of the body, chiefly by gravitation, by in- 
troducing the needle under the skin. 

In general dropsy the water accumulates in the cellular 
tissue in all cases, to a greater or less extent ; in some, only in 
sufficient quantities to distend the skin enough to remove 
wrinkles, while in others it will stretch the skin to its fullest 
extent, enormously increasing the size and weight of the body. 

In putrefaction, the accumulation of gas in the areolar tis- 
sue beneath the skin causes the extensive bloating that is seen 
in souk' cases. 

The Hair is but a modified form of the cuticle, and exists 
on nearly the whole surface of the body, varying in length 
and size. It forms a protection from heat ami cold, and 
shields the head from blows. The roots of the hairs are im- 



66 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

bedded in .small opening in the skin, called hair=follicles, 
which are from one=t\velftk to one=fourtli of an inch in depth. 
The outside of a hair is compact and hard, consisting of a 
layer of colorless scales, which overlie one another like shin- 
gles on a roof. The interior is porous and conveys the liquids 
by which the hair is nourished. It also contains pigmentary 
matter, upon which the color of the hair depends. The hair 
and scalp are kept soft and pliable by the oily secretion of the 
small glands which open into hair follicles, called sebaceous 
glands. That portion of a hair outside the skin is called the 
shaft. Each hair grows from a tiny bulb (papilla), which is 
an elevation of the cutis at the bottom of a little hollow of the 
skin. (See Fig. 4. ) The hair is produced from the surface 
of the bulb, like the cuticle, by the constant formation of new 
cells at the bottom. When the hair is pulled out, this bulb, if 
uninjured, will produce a new hair, but once destroyed it will 
never grow again. Hair grows at the rate of five to seven 
inches a year. 

The popular idea that hair grows after death is due to the 
shrinking of the skin, allowing the portion of the hair below 
the surface to project. This is especially noticeable in the 
beard. It is true that we often hear of hair having grown 
quite extensively on the head and face of bodies that have 
been disinterred. If such is the case, scientifically we cannot 
account for it. There is certainly not enough nutrition left 
in the parts to produce the growth. The hair, next to the 
teeth and bones, is the least destructible part of the body, and 
its color is often preserved after other portions of the body 
have decayed. 

The Nails begin near the tips of the fingers and toes, and 
consist of two parts, a root and a body. The latter is the part 
exposed to view, being about four times the length of the root. 
They protect the tender fingers and toes, and give the power 
to grasp firmly, and pick up easily, any desired object. The 
nail is firmly set in a groove (matrix) in the cuticle, from 
which it stows at the root in length and from beneath in 



THE ABSORBENTS 67 

thickness. So long as the matrix at the root is uninjured, the 
nail will be reproduced after an accident. 

Like the hair the nail is a mere modified form of the epi- 
dermis, its horny appearance and feeling being due to the fact 
that the scales, or plates, of which it is composed are much 
harder and more closely packed. It is thrown into ridges 
which run parallel to each other except at the back part, 
where they radiate from the center of the root. The whitish, 
semicircular portion near the root, called the lunula (lunula, 
little moon), owes its different color to the fact that its ridges 
contain fever blood=vessels and therefore less blood. The 
thumb nail will grow from the root to its free end in about 
five months, and the nail of the great toe in twenty months. 

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 
The Lymphatics are very delicate, transparent, nerveless 
vessels which exist beneath the skin and in all the mucous 



||||§.,*u&rt4rj. 



d&SSf? "iKf safely ' ■"' , '*•• ■" -^oLyrnphatics* 



Fig. 5. Section of Mesentery, 
Showing Lacteals, Lymphatics, and Thoracic Duct. 

membranes. Thus they permeate nearly every portion of the 
body, being closely interlocked with the blood=capillaries, 
The parts of the body free from them are the brain, spinal 
cord, eye=ball, cartilage, tendons, membranes of the ovum, 
placenta, umbilical cord, nails, cuticle, hair, and bone. They 



68 CHAM PI OX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMIXG 

are formed, like arteries and veins, of three coats, and are 
nourished by nutrient vessels. Like the veins, the lymphatics 
are provided with valves which permit the matter they convey 
to flow only one way. Their economy in the human system 
seems to be to gather up portions of waste matter capable of 
further use, emptying it, now known as lymph, into the veins, 
whence it is conveyed to the heart. 

The Lacteals, or chyliferous vessels, are small lymphatics, 
which have their origin in the mucous membrane lining the 
small intestine. Through them the greater part of the di- 
gested food is absorbed from the small intestine and trans- 
ferred to the circulatory system. 

The Villi are delicate, hair-like projections from the lining 
membrane of the small intestine in which the lacteals have 
their origin. They are about one=third of an inch in length 
and vast in number, covering the entire surface of the intes- 
tine. Each villus, in addition to its lacteal, possesses an 




Fig. 6. Mucous Membrane of Ilium, Showing Villi (highly magnified). 
_ 1, cellular structure of er-'tnelium : 2, a vein: 3. fibrous layer; 4. villi covered 
wKli epithelium' ... a villus in section: 6. a villus partially uncovered: 7. a villus 
tnpped of epithelium; 9, openings of glands; 10, 11, 12, glands; 13, capillaries. 

artery and accompanying vein, with their network of capil- 
laries. The villi, diptrinsj into the digested, liquified food= 
substance in the intestine, appropriates a liberal portion, 



THE ABSORBENTS 69 

which is taken np in the lacteals, where it becomes a milky= 
white fluid, called chyle. The blood=vessels in the villi also 
absorb a part of the liquid food. 

The Lymphatic Glands are small, hard, pinkish bodies, 
varying in size from a pin head to an almond, placed along* the 
course of these absorbent vessels. They are found principally 
in the mesentery, along the great blood=vessels, in the popli- 
teal space, groin, mediastinum, neck, axilla., and front of the 
elbow. The lymphatic vessels pass through these glands. 
They receive their names from the region in which they are 
situated, as the mediastinal, axillary, etc. In the these glands 
are formed corpuscles, resembling the white corpuscles of the 
blood, which are taken up by the stream of lymph as it flows 
past. 

The Thoracic Duct is a tube or canal which commences in 
the receptaculum chyli, in front of the second lumbar ver- 
tebra, passes through the aortic opening in the diaphragm, 
ascending to the left subclavian vein at its junction with the 
internal jugular, into which it empties. It is the channel for 
the lymph and chyle from the whole body, except the right 
side of the body above and including the convex surface of the 
liver. Its average length in adults is from fifteen to eighteen 
inches, and its diameter is about that of a goose=quill, except 
along the middle part, where it is considerably less. It has 
three coats and is provided with valves. 

The Lymphatic Duct is about an inch in length, termi- 
nates in the right subclavian vein at its junction with the in- 
ternal jugular, and drains the lymphatics of those parts not 
connected with the thoracic duct. 

The Lymph is an alkaline fluid of a thin, colorless, or yel- 
lowish appearance. It closely resembles in appearance and 
composition blood deprived of its red corpuscles and diluted 
with water. This is the fluid which flows through the lym- 
phatic system. 



VISCERAL ANATOMY 



THE THREE GREAT CAVITIES 



Of the body are the cranial, in the head, and the thoracic and 
abdominal, in the trunk. 

Visceral anatomy treats of the organs contained in these 
cavities, with their appendages and coverings. 

These organs and appendages are called the viscera, or vis- 
ceral organs; and those of any cavity are called the viscera 
of that cavity. 

The chapters immediately following are devoted, in the 
main, to the consideration of visceral anatomy. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 
The Nervous System includes the brain, the spinal chord, 
and the nerves. It is also divided into the cerebrospinal and 
sympathetic systems. Although distinct from all other sys- 
tems of the body, the nervous system unites the various parts 
and organs into one complete, organic whole. It is the 
medium through which all impressions upon the mind are 
received and acted upon. The movements of the body and 
all the processes of life are regulated by it. 

Nervous Tissue is composed of two kinds of matter, white 
and gray, and consists of two different structures, nerve=cells 
and nerve=fibers. The nerve=cell is the part that is capable of 
creating nerve=force, while the nerve-fiber acts as conductor 
of this force. The nerve=cells form the gray matter of the 
nervous tissue, and are of a pulp=like substance of about the 
consistency of blancmange. The nerve=fibers consist of mi- 
nute, white, glistening fibers, sometimes as small as one 
twenty=five=thousandth part of an inch. Every nerve=fiber 
is connected with a nerve=cell. 

The Nerves are white, glistening cords, made up of bun- 
dles of nerve=fibers, and penetrate every part of the body. 
These bundles divide and subdivide as they proceed. They 
also gather into little masses or nerve=centers, called gan- 
o-lions {ganglion, a knot). These nerve=centers answer to the 
offices along a telegraph line where messages are sent and 
received, while the nerves correspond to the wires that carry 
the messages. Nerves contain two kinds of uerve=fibers, one 
of which conducts from the nerve=centers to the muscles or 



72 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

organs, and the other from the latter to the nerve=eenters. The 
first are called motor nerves and the latter sensory nerves. 

If you place a finger on a 
hot stove the sensation of 
pain travels to the nerve= 
center through the sensory 
nerves. A peculiar force is 
generated in the nerve=cen- 
ter which is conducted 
through the motor nerves to 
the muscle which controls 
the finger, causing it to con- 
tract and thus be removed 
from contact with the hot 
surface of the stove. 

Nerve-Current.— T h i s 
passing of the sensa- 
tion to the nerve=cen- 
ter, and of force back 
to the muscle, consti- 
tutes what is called the 
nerve=current. This current 
travels at about the rate of 
one hundred and ten feet a 
second, being much slower 
than an electric=current. 
About one=twentieth of a 
second is required for a sen- 
sation to pass from the foot 
to the brain, and an equal 
time is required for the 
force generated to travel 
back. 

N e r v e-Sensations.— 




The Cerebrospinal System 



Hearing, feeling, tasting, 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 73 

seeing, and smelling are all different kinds of sensations, 
each with its special nerve=centers which preside over it. 
There are also several varieties of motor nerves, some coming 
from centers which preside over the heart and stomach, others 
over muscles, etc. Certain motor nerves, called vasomotor 
nerves, are distributed to the walls of the blood=vessels and 
control the circulation by regulating the size of the blood= 
vessels, causing them to dilate or contract according to the 
amount of blood needed. 

The Sympathetic System consists of nerves and nerve- 
centers, or ganglions. There are two chains of ganglions, one 
on each side of the spinal column, within the body, running 
the whole length and extending into the chest and abdomen. 
There are thirty pairs of these ganglions. The sympathetic 
system of nerves supplies the involuntary muscular tissue, 
governs all acts of secretion, equalizes the circulation, and 
controls the nutrition of the body. Nerves from the ganglions 
are distributed to the mucous membrane and the organs con- 
cerned in nutrition — the stomach, liver, intestines, etc. The 
vasomotor nerves belong to this system. Thus all the organs 
of the body are bound together with cords of sympathy, so 
that if one suffers all suffer with it. 

The Cerebrospinal System consists of the brain and 
spinal cord, and the nerves coming from them. This system 
supplies the greater part of the body with nerves. It presides 
over sensation, special senses, voluntary motion, intellect, 
and all movements which characterize different individuals. 

THE CRANIAL CAVITY. 
The cranial cavity is the smallest of the three large cavities 
of the body, and contains the brain and its coverings, or men- 
inges — the arachnoid, pia mater, and dura mater. 
THE BRAIN. 
The Brain is the seat of the mind, and it is tin 1 functions 
which the brain performs that distinguishes man from other 
animals. Man becomes a conscious, intelligent, responsible 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



being through the action of the brain. The average brain 
weighs about forty=nine and a half ounces in the adult male 
and forty=four ounces in the female. It is egg-shaped, soft, 
and yielding, closely filling the skull cavity. It is surrounded 
by a delicate double membrane, 
called the arachnoid, forming a 
closed sac, and filled, as are also 
the brain spaces, with a watery 
liquid. Within the membrane, 
still more closely investing the 
brain, is a tine vascular mem- 
brane, called the pia mater, which 
dips down between the convolu- 
tions and laminae and is prolonged 
into the interior, forming the 
velum interpositum and choroid 
plexuses of the fourth ventricle. This tissue 
receives its blood supply from the internal 
carotid and vertebral arteries, and so copi- 
ously does it bathe the adjacent parts that it 
is said to use one=fifth of the entire circula- 
tion of the body. It is plentifully supplied 
with lymphatics and nerves. The outermost 
envelope of the brain is the dura mater, a 
dense, tough, glistening, fibrous membrane, 
which lines the interior of the cranium and 
the spinal column. It separates the various 
parts of the organs by strong partitions. 

The brain is composed of a number of 
nerve=centers, or ganglions, which are con- 
nected with one another and with the motor 
and sensory nerves of the system. The brain 
consists of both white and gray matter, and is 
divided into three portions, cerebrum, cere- 
bellum, and medulla oblongata. 




The Brain and 
Spinal Cord. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 75 

The Cerebrum (the brain) occupies the front and upper 
part of the cavity of the cranium, and comprises about seven= 
eighths of the -entire weight of the brain. It is divided into 
two lateral halves, or hemispheres, right and left, by the great 
longitudinal fissure, which extends throughout the entire 
length of the cerebrum, reaching to the base in front and be- 
hind, but in the middle it is interrupted by a tranverse com- 
missure of white matter, the corpus callosum, which connects 
the two hemispheres. In this fissure lodges the falx cerebri. 
Each hemisphere is divided, by fissures on the under surface 
of the brain, into three lobes, anterior, middle, and posterior. 
Thus, we are provided with two brains, as well as hands, feet, 
eyes, and ears ; and one hemisphere has been known to be de- 
stroyed in large part without particular injury to the mental 
powers. 

The cerebrum is the center of intelligence and of thought, 
and is a mass of white fibers, with cells of gray matter on the 
outside, or lodged here and there in ganglions. The surface 
is not smooth, except in infancy, but is arranged in large con- 
volutions and sulci, which arrangement very largely increases 
the surface for the gray matter. This surface has been esti- 
mated in some cases to measure as much as six hundred and 
seventy square inches. Depth and intricacy of these convo- 
lutions are characteristic of high mental power. Persons of 
weak mind are oftentimes said to be lacking in gray matter, 
while brainy persons are said to possess it in large quantities. 
When the cerebrum becomes seriously injured or diseased the 
person is often unable to converse intelligently from an in- 
ability to remember words and lack of force to articulate 
them. 

The Cerebellum (a small brain) is situated beneath the 
posterior Lobes of the cerebrum in the inferior occipital fossae. 
It is connected by the crura (connecting bands) to the rest of 
the brain, two to the cerebrum, two to the medulla oblongata, 
and two blending together in front, forming the pons Varolii. 
It is about the size of a small fist and weighs about five 



76 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

ounces. In structure it is similar to the cerebrum, being 
divided into hemispheres, but unlike that portion has 
parallel ridges, which, letting the gray matter down deep 
into the white matter within, give it a peculiar appearance, 
called the arbor=vitse, or tree of life. This part of the brain 
is the center for the control of the voluntary muscles, partic- 
ularly those of locomotion. If it is injured or diseased the 
power of locomotion is greatly hindered, the muscles not 
acting as they should. The falx cerebelli projects between 
the lateral lobes of the cerebellum. 

The Medulla Oblongata {medulla, marrow; oblongus, 
rather long) is the upper, enlarged part of the spinal cord, 
extending from the upper border of the atlas to the pons 
Varolii, and connecting- the spinal cord with the various gan- 
glions of the brain. Its anterior surface rests on the basilar 
groove of the occipital bone, while its posterior surface forms 
the floor of the fourth ventricle. It is about an inch and ;i 
quarter in length and an inch wide, and is composed of a 
mass of white matter, within which is imbedded a collection 
of gray matter, or nerve=cells. By connecting the spinal chord 
with the brain, it serves to conduct the sensation and motor 
stimulus to and from the brain. Probably its most important 
function is its entire control over the acts of respiration, and 
if it is injured or destroyed, breathing ceases and death re- 
sults. Within the medulla oblongata is also supposed to lie 
the centers of the vasomotor and cardiac nerves, and nerves 
of plantation, deglutition, mastication, and expression. 

The Spinal Cord is the cylindrical elongated part of the 
cerebrospinal axis, which is contained in the spinal canal. Its 
length is usually about sixteen or seventeen inches. It com- 
mences at the upper border of the axis ami terminates at the 
lower border of the firsl lumbar vertebra in the cauda equina. 
It has two enlargements, one in the cervical region, and one in 
the lumbar. It is composed of gray matter internally and 
white matter externally. It gives out thirtv-one pairs of 



D 
THE HEART 

TWO PLATES-XVin.-XI* 



PLATE XVIII. 



THB HEART, ITS CAVITIES AND VALVES. 




Anterior Surface with F-:Ai 



Covering. 



A. Left ventricle. 

Ji. Right ventricle. 

C. Apex of pericardium. 

a. Appendix of right auricle. 

I). Appendix of left auricle. 

e. Transverse or auriculo=ventricular 

groove. 

1. Pulmonary artery. 

3. Right coronar; artery. 

■i. Front b .. ich of left coronary ari> ry. 



V. Left auricle. 

E. Ascending aorta. 

F. Apex of heart. 

/. Anterior longitudinal sulcus, 
ft, ft, ft. Pericardium divided and tin 
back. 



Commencement of great coronary 
vein. 



PLATE XIX. 

THE HEART, ITS CAVITIES AND VALVBS.-Coatimied. 




Internal Canities of Ventricles Anterior View. 



A. Pulmonary artery. 

H. Aorta. 

('. Superior vena cava. 

D. Inferior vena cava. 

E. Right ventricle. 



Appendix of right auricle. 

Appendix of left auricle. 

Pulmonary veins. 

Apex of heart. 

Wall of the ventricles. 

Opening of pulmonary artery. 

Opening of aorta. 



F. Left ventricle. 

G. Pulmonary opening. 
//. Left auricle. 

I. Right auricle. 



Tricuspid or right auriculo=ventricu 

lar valve. 
Bicuspid or left auriculo=ventricuiar 

valve. 
Tendinous cords. 
Fleshy surface of cut edge of right 

ventricle. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 81 

nerves — eight cervical, twelve dorsal, five lumbar, five sacral, 
and one coccygeal — which divide and subdivide, going to all 
parts of the trunk and extremities. Each nerve arises by two 
roots, the anterior being the motory, and the posterior, the 
sensory root. These roots soon unite into one sheath, though 
they preserve their special functions. 

The Cranial Nerves, consisting of twelve pairs, arise from 
the lower part of the brain and medulla oblongata, They are 
as follows: 

1. Olfactory, nerves of smell. 

2. Optic, nerves of vision. 

3. Motor oculi, ^ 

4. Pathetic, >eye=moving nerves. 

6. Abducens, J 

5. Trigeminus (trifacial), nerves of the face, which divide 
into three branches, going respectively to the upper part of 
the face, eyes, and nose ; to the upper jaw and teeth ; and to 
the lower jaw and mouth, the latter branch becoming the 
nerve of taste. 

7. Facial, nerves of expression. 

8. Auditory, nerves of hearing. 

9. Glossopharyngeal, nerves of the pharynx, tonsils, etc. 

10. Pnenmogastric, nerves of the larynx, lungs, liver, stom- 
ach, and heart (in part). 

11. Accessory, nerves regulating the vocal movements of 
the larynx. 

12. Hypoglossal, nerves giving motion to the tongue. 



CHAPTEK V. 



THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 



The Respiratory Organs comprise the respiratory trad, 
or air=passages, the lungs, and certain muscles which assist in 
the act of breathing. The respiratory tract consists of the 

passages of the nose and 
mouth, the pharynx, lar- 
ynx, and trachea, or 
windpipe. All these or- 
gans are located above 
the diaphragm — the great 
muscle of respiration — 
chiefly in the neck and 
thorax. 

Mouth and Nose. — 

The air-passages begin 
with the month and nose. 
The proper passages for 
the air to enter in the act 
of breathing are those of 
the nose. These passages 
are lined with a smooth, 
soft, mucous membrane, 
the surface of which is 
greatly increased by the 
projection into the nasal cavity of peculiarly shaped bones. 
This mucous membrane is constantly kept moist, thus catch- 
ing particles of dust from the air as it passes through the 
nose, and serving to a. certain extent in rendering the air 




Fig. 9. The Upper Air-Passages. 

Sectional view, showing relative positions 

connections, and openings. 



THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION 83 

moist. The air is slightly warmed, likewise, in passing 
through these passages. Minute filaments, or cilia, along the 
aii-passages, besides assisting the inward and outward move- 
ments of the air, are useful in catching dust and fine particles 
swept inward with the breath. Although it is possible to 
breathe through the mouth, it is always better to use the nose 
for this purpose, as the mouth cannot properly perforin this 
office. 

The Pharynx, or Throat, is a musculomembranous sac, 
conical in form, four and a half inches long, with the base 
upward and the apex downward, extending from the basilar 
process of the occipital bone to the lower border of the cricoid 
cartilage in front, and the bottom of the fifth cervical verte- 
bra behind. It lies behind the nose, mouth, and larynx ; that 
portion behind the nose is known as the nasopharynx, and 
that behind the mouth, as the oropharynx. It serves as an 
air-passage to the larynx as well as a food=passage to the 
esophagus, which is a continuation of the pharynx. (See 
Fig. 9.) It has seven openings communicating with it — the 
two posterior nares, from the nose ; the two Eustachian tubes, 
from the middle ears ; one from the mouth ; one to the larynx ; 
and the terminal opening into the esophagus. The arteries 
that supply the pharynx are the superior thyroid, ascending 
pharyngeal, pterygopalatine, and descending palatine. 

The Larynx is a musculomembranous, cartilaginous, tri- 
angulai-shaped box, situated between the root of the tongue 
and the trachea, into which it merges. It is composed of nine 
cartilages, which are connected together by ligaments and 
moved by numerous muscles. There are three single carti- 
lages: the thyroid, cricoid, the epiglottis; and three pairs: 
the arytenoid, cornicnla laryngis, and cuneiform. The thy- 
roid is the largest cartilage, and consists of two lateral la- 
mellae, which unite at an acute angle in front, forming the 
prominent projection seen in the front of the neck, called the 
pomum Adami, or Adam's apple. 



84 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Glottis and Epiglottis. — The opening into the larynx 
from the throat is called the glottis. Just above this opening 
is a leaf=like portion of fibroeartilage, called the epiglottis 
(epi, upon; glottis, tongue), which, during the act of breath- 
ing, lies in such a position as to leave the larynx unob- 
structed. When food or drink is being swallowed, the larynx 
is drawn up beneath the tongue, and the epiglottis shuts 
down, closing the glottis and preventing the entrance into the 
windpipe of any foreign substance. However, should any- 
thing enter the larynx by any means, a fit of coughing will 
result until such substance is dislodged. 

Vocal Cords. — The larynx is also called the special organ 
of the voice, as there are stretched across its upper part, at 
either side of the glottis, folds of elastic mucous membrane, 
called the vocal cords, which, by their vibration, due to the 
passage of air from the lungs, produce sound, or voice. 
AVhen not in use the vocal cords spread apart, leaving a 
V=shaped orifice for the passage of the air. On being tight- 
ened for use, the edges sometimes approach to within a hun- 
dredth part of an inch of each other. The lips, tongue, pal- 
ate, and teeth assist in the modulation of speech. 

THE THORACIC CAVITY. 

The Thorax, or Chest, is the smaller and upper of the 
two main cavities of the trunk. It extends from the neck to 
the diaphragm; is conical in shape, with the apex above and 
the base below; is bounded at the back by the spinal column, 
in front by the sternum, at the side by the ribs, and below by 
the diaphragm. It contains the lungs, pleurae, heart, peri- 
cardium, aorta, vena 1 cavse, trachea, esophagus, and numerous 
other organs. 

The Trachea, or Windpipe, is cylindrical, membrano- 
eartilaginous tube about four and a half inches in length and 
one inch in diameter. It begins at the lower border of the 



THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION 



85 



larynx, opposite the fifth cervical vertebra, and ends oppo- 
site the third dorsal, where it divides into the two bronchi, 
one for each lung. It is composed of a fibro=elastic membrane, 
containing from sixteen to twenty C=shaped, stiff, cartilage 
inous rings, connected by muscular fibers, which keep the 




Fig. 10. The Thoracic Viscera. 



Showing location an< 



trachea, aortic 



walls rigid and prevent their collapse during the act of 
breathing. The openings of the cartilages are behind, where 
they are attached to the esophagus. The thyroid gland lies at 
the side and in front of the upper portion of the trachea, 



86 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



The Bronchi arc the right and left divisions of the trachea, 
which enter the lungs, dividing and subdividing into many 
bronchial tubes, ramifying all parts of the lungs. The last 
and most minute subdivisions are called bronchioles. A 
smooth mucous membrane, which is constantly kept moist by 
a secretion of mucous, Hues the trachea and bronchial tubes 
throughout, extending with 
the vessels into all parts of 
the lungs. The stiff cartilag- 
inous rings, so noticeable in 
the rough surface of the tra- 
chea and bronchi, disappear 
in the smaller bronchial 
tubes, so that, while the form- 
er are kept constantly open 
for the free admission of air, 
the latter are provided with 
elastic fibers, by which they 
may be almost closed. The 
right bronchus is wider, 
shorter, and more horizontal 
than the left, is only about 
one inch in length, and en- 
ters the right lung opposite 
the fourth dorsal vertebra. 
The left is smaller, more ob- 
lique, two inches long, and 
enters the left lung opposite the fifth dorsal vertebra, about 
one inch lower than the right, The arteries are the tracheal 
branches of the inferior thyroid and the bronchial branches 
of the thoracic aorta. The veins open into the thyroid plexus 
and the bronchial veins. 

The Lungs are the essential organs of respiratiou ; are two 
in number, one on each side; weigh together about forty=two 
ounces ; and fill the greater part of the thorax. Like many of 




Fig. 11. Larynx, Trachea, and Bronchi. 

A, trachea; B, right lung; (', left lung; 
1), larynx. 



THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION 87 

the organs, they are heavier in the male than in the female. 
They are separated from each other by the heart and other- 
contents of the mediastinum. Each lung is conical in shape, 
with the apex extending into the root of the neck about one 
inch above the first rib, and with the base, which is broad and 
concave, resting on the diaphragm. A long, deep fissure, pen- 
etrating nearly to the root, divides each lung into two lobes, 
and a lesser fissure subdivides the upper lobe of the right 
lung. The right lung is larger, heavier (by about an ounce), 
broader, and shorter than the left. The root of the lung is 
where the bronchial vessels and nerves, bound together by 
areolar tissue, enter the lung. The color of the lungs at birth 
is pinkish=white, which, as age advances, become mottled with 
slate=colored patches, from the deposits of carbonaceous gran- 
ules in the areolar tissue of the organ. 

Structure of the Lungs.— The lungs are composed of an 
external serous coat (the pleura?), covering the entire surface 
as far as the root ; a subserous, elastic, areolar tissue, invest- 
ing the entire organ and extending in,, ard between the lob- 
ules; and the parenchyma, or true lung tissue. The paren- 
chyma is composed of lobules, which, although closely con- 
nected together by interlobular, areolar tissue, are quite dis- 
tinct from each other. The lobules vary in size, those on the 
surface being large, while those in the interior are smaller. 
Each lobule consists of several air=cells, arranged around the 
termination of a bronchiole, and surrounded by plexuses of 
pulmonary and bronchial arteries and veins, lymphatics, and 
nerves. The lungs are nourished by the bronchial arteries, 
and supplied with blood for oxygenation by the pulmonary 
arteries. The bronchial arteries are derived from the tho- 
racic aorta, and the pulmonary artery, from the irght ven- 
tricle of the heart. The bronchial veins open into the vena 
azygos on the right side and superior intercostal on the left. 
The pulmonary veins, which carry (lie oxygenated blood from 



§8 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALM I NO 

the lungs to the heart, open by four orifices into the left 
auricle. 

The Pleur89 are two delicate, serous, shut sacs, one sur- 
rounding each lung, and deflected or turned back upon itself, 
so as to line the chest walls. The pleurae meet for a short 
space behind the middle of the sternum, a.1 the approximation 
of the anterior borders of The lungs. The visceral layer in- 
vests the lungs as far as the root, while the parietal layer 
lines the inner surface of the walls of the chest, the dia- 
phragm, and the pericardium. This membrane secretes a 
thin fluid, which acts as a lubricator, preventing friction be- 
tween the surface of the lungs and the chest=walls during the 
act of breathing. The space between the two layers is called 
the cavity of the pleura. 

The Mediastinum is the space between the two pleurae in 
the median line of the thorax, extending from the sternum 
lo the vertebra] column, and containing all the viscera of the 
chest, except the lungs, including the heart ami pericardium, 
the large blood-vessels, esophagus, etc. It is divided into the 
superior mediastinum (upper portion), and the anterior, 
middle, and posterior mediastinum (lower portion). 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 



The Organs of Digestion consist of the alimentary canal 
and accessory organs. All food, before it is in a condition to 
afford nourishment to the tissues, must undergo a certain 
process, called digestion. It is while passing through these 
organs that digestion takes place. 

The Alimentary Ganal, the chief organ of digestion, is a 
musculomembranous tube, about twenty=five or thirty feet in 
length, extending from the mouth to the anus, and lined 
throughout with mucous membrane. It is divided into differ- 
ent parts, each with its distinctive name and duties. These 
are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, 
and large intestine. The first three lie above the diaphragm, 
and the others below it. The accessory organs are the tongue, 
teeth, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, etc. 

The Mouth, placed at the commencement of the alimen- 
tary canal, is an oval=shaped cavity, formed by the lips, 
cheeks, jaws, palate, and tongue, in which the mastication 
of the food takes place. It opens posteriorly into the pharynx 
by the fauces, and contains the tongue, teeth, hard palate, soft 
palate, uvula, anterior and posterior pillars of the fauces, 
tonsils, and the openings of Stenson's and Wharton's ducts 
and of the ducts of Rivinus. 

The Salivary Glands are the parotid, lying below and in 
front of the external ear, and the submaxillary and sublin- 
gual, lying in the corresponding fossae on the inner surface 
of the inferior maxillary bone. All of these glands open into 
the mouth by ducts, and are stimulated to action by the pres- 
ence of food in the mouth, and by the operation of chewing. 



90 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING. 



The fluid secreted by these glands is called the saliva. It is 
mixed with the food during the act of mastication and keeps 
the interior of the mouth moistened. The saliva is of the 




1. Mouth. 

2. Hard palate. 
:!. Lower jaw. 

4. Teeth. 

5. 5, 6, 6. Mucous membran* 
7. Roof of moutn. 

S. 8. Soft palate. 
:». 9. Pharynx. 
Ki. Uvula. 

11. 11. Tongue. 

12. Floor of mouth. 
L3. Trachea. 

14. 14. l."i. Esophagus. 
16. Stomach. 
IT. Cardiac end. 

18. Pyloric end. 

19. Lesser curvature. 

20. Greater curvature. 

21. Cai-diac orifice. 
21!. Pyloric valve 

23. I '..'-inning of duodenum. 

24. Descending duodenum. 
2. r ». Ending of duodenum. 
2(1. Transverse duodenum. 
27. Call bladder. 

2(1. Transverse duodenum. 

27. Call bladder. 

28. Cystic duel. 

29. 30. Hepatic duct. 

31. Choledocli duct. 

32. Pancreatic opening. 

33. Pancreatic duct. 

34. Choledoch opening. 

35. Jejunum. 

■•:<;. ::<; ::<;. ilium. 

37, 38. Ending of ilium. 

39. Iliocecal valve. 

40. 41. Cecum. 
42. Vermiform appendix. 
4::. 4:;. 44. Ascending col 

45. Transverse colon. 

46. 47. 47. Descending colon. 
48, 49. Sigmoid flexure. 

50. Rectum. 

51. Sphincter muscle. 
">2. Anus. 



)lon. 



Fig. 12. The Alimentary Canal, a Portion of Esophagus Being Removed. 

greatest importance in the proper digestion of the food, moist- 
ening and softening the food, so that when it enters the stom- 
ach the digestive juices there can readily act upon it. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 



91 



The Tongue is the organ of the special sense of taste. It is 
situated in the floor of the mouth, in the interval between the 
two lateral portions of the body of the lower jaw. Its base, or 
root, is directed backward, and is connected with the hyoid 
bone by numerous muscles ; with the epiglottis by three folds 
of muscous membrane, which form the glosso=epiglottic liga- 
ments ; and with the soft palate and pharynx, by means of the 
anterior and posterior pillars of the fauces. Its mucous mem- 
brane is reflected over the floor of the mouth to the inner sur- 
face of the gums, forming in front a fold, the frenum of the 
tongue. Papillae cover nearly the entire surface of the dor- 
sum of the tongue, giving it its characteristic roughness. The 
arteries are the lingual, submental, and ascending pha- 
ryngeal. 

The Teeth are a very important factor in the scheme of 
digestion. Their office is to reduce 
the food to a proper condition as 
to fineness, so that it can pass 
through the pharynx and esopha- 
gus into the stomach, and there be 
easily acted upon. This process is 
called mastication. The teeth, of 
which there are thirty=two in the 
complete adult set, sixteen in each 
jaw, consist of crown, neck, and 
root. The crown is the part above 
the gums, and is covered with a 
white glistening substance, called 
enamel, which is the hardest sub- 
stance in the human body. The 
permanent teeth in each jaw are 
as follows: four incisor, two canine 
molar 

The Jaws possess the mechanism for grinding the food. 
The lower jaw being movable, its muscles bring it against the 




Opening for nerves and'bluud-vessels 

Fig. 13. The Jaws and Teeth. 

four bicuspid, and six 



92 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

upper jaw, giving it also a sidewise motion. The tongue, 
lips, and checks assist in mastication by keeping the food 
mass between the teeth. 

The Pharynx, which is fully described in the preceding 
chapter, forms that part of the alimentary canal which lies 
back of the nose, month, and larynx. It has two openings in 
its lower part, one to the esophagus, into which it emerges, 
and the other to the larynx. It thus forms an important link 
in the alimentary canal as well as the respiratory tract. 

The Esophagus (gullet) is a musculomembranous canal, 
about nine inches long, extending from the pharynx, at the 
lower border of the cricoid cartilage of the larynx, and the 
fifth cervical vertebra., along the front of the spine, through 
the posterior mediastinum, passing through the esophageal 
opening into the abdomen, to the cardiac orifice of the stom- 
ach, opposite the ninth dorsal vertebra, where it terminates. 
It is located in the neck, between the trachea and the verte- 
bral column. Its general direction is vertical. It is the nar- 
rowest part of the alimentary canal. The esophageal arteries 
arc chiefly branches from the thoracic aorta. The veins 
empty into the vena azygos minor. 

THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY. 
The Abdomen, or Belly, is the largest cavity of the body, 
extending from the diaphragm to the floor of the pelvis. 
Though the pelvic cavity is really a part of the general ab- 
dominal cavity, it is here considered as a separate 1 cavity. 
Thus restricted, the abdominal cavity is bounded above by 
the diaphragm, below by the brim of the pelvis, at the back by 
the vertebral column and the psoas and quadratus muscles, 
and in front and at the sides by the transversalis fascia, the 
lower libs, and the ilac venter. The muscles forming the 
boundaries of the cavity are lined upon their inner surface 
by a layer of fascia, differently arranged, according to the 
part to which it is attached. 



E 
THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA 

WITH THEIR BLOOD-VESSELS 



TEN PLATES-XX.-XXIX 



PLATE XX. 



VISCERA OF THORAX, ABDOMEN AND PELVIS 
(ANTERIOR VIEW). 



Thoracic Parletes with Viscera Enclosed ( Abdomen aiul Abdominal 
Viscera in Natural Position). 



I. Costal pleura, 

IL Left lung. 

All. Anterior mediastinum. 

XV. Phrenic pleura, 

V. Diaphragm. 

VI. Peritoneum. 

VII. External inguinal fossa. 

VIII. Peritoneal coat of bladder. 

IX. Urinary bladder. 

X. Suspensory ligament of liver. 

XI. Umbilicus. 

XII. Round ligament of liver (obliter- 
ated umbilical vein ). 

X11I. Lateral ligaments of blacMer (ob- 
literated umbilical arteries ). 

». Clavicle. 

h, Sternum. 

c. First rib. 

ll. Tenth rib. 



XIV. Middle ligament of bladder (ob- 
literated urachus). 
XV. Stomach. 
XVI. Right lobe of liver (with gall= 
bladder). 
XVII. Left lobe of liver (with galh 
bladder). 
XVIII Transverse colon. 
XIX. Cecum. 

XX. Jejunum and ilium. 
XXI. Descending colon. 
XXII. Sigmoid flexure. 
XXIII. Rectum. 



e. Costal cartilages. 
/. ilium 
ff. Os pubis. 



h. Pectoralis minor. 

v. Internal intercostal. 

k. Triangular of sternum. 

I. Subscapular. 

?;. Latissimus dorsi. 

■n. Abdominal (oblique external and in- 
ternal, aud trans versaiis). 

o. Sartorius. 

p. Rectus femoris. 



Tensor fascia? lata?. 
Adductor femoris longus, 
Pectineus. 
Poupart's ligament. 
Spermatic cord. 

Divided margin of obliquus extern us. 
Fascia transversalis. 
Inferior pillar of external abdominal 
ring (annulus abdominalis). 



Blood=Vessel3 and Nerves. 



Axillary artery. 

Axillary vein. 

internal mammary artery and vein. 

Superior anterior intercostal arteries. 

Inferior anterior intercostal arteries. 

Sternal branches of internal mam- 
mary artery. 

Brachial plexus. 

Transverse artery and vein of the 
scapula, with suprascapular nf've. 

Posterior intercostal arteries. 

intercostal nerves. 

Crural artery 



12. Crural vein. 

LS. Epigastric artery and veins. 

11. Great saphenous vein. 

15. Circumflex artery and Veins of 

hi. Crural nerve. 

17. Anterior branch of the obturati 

nerve. 

18. Anterior external cutaneal ner\ 

the thigh. 

19. Cutaneal branch of the iliohy] 

trie nerve. 

20. Lumboinguinal nerve, 



PLATE XXI. 



VISCERA OF THORAX, ABDOHEN AND PELVIS 
( ANTERIOR VIEW )-Continued. 



Lungs, in Position, and Deeper Abdominal Viscera ( Small Intestine 
Being Removed). 



I. Superior lobe of rigbt lung. 

II. Middle lobe of right lung. 

III. Inferior lobe of right lung. 

IV. Superior lobe of left lung. 
V. Inferior lobe of left lung. 

VI. Pleura. 

VII. Anterior mediastinal space. 

VIII. Diaphragm. 

IX. Esophagus. 

X. Stomach. 

XI. Spleen. 

XII. Left lobe of liver (a portion of 
left extremity being removed). 

XIII. Right lob.- of liver. 

XIV. Gallbladder. 

Clavicle. 
First rib. 



XV. Suspensory ligament of liver, 

XVI. Duodenum. 

A' VII. Jejunum. 

XVIII. Mesentery. 

XIX. Cecum. 

XX. Vermiform appendix. 

XXI Ascending colon. 

XXII. Right flexure of colon. 

XXIII. Transverse colon. 

XXI V. Left flex u re of colon . 

XXV. Descending colon. 

XXVI. Sigmoid flexure of colon. 

XXVII. Rectum. 

XXVIII. Peritoneum. 

XXIX. Ilium (divided). 



I c. Eli 
| d. Or. 



Eleventh rib. 
est of ilium. 



e. Psoas major. 

/. Internal iliac. 

g. Rectus femoris. 

h. Gluteus medius. 

i. Vastus externus. 

k. External obturator, 

c Obturator ligament. 

m. Adductor magnus. 

n. Adductor brevis. 



Adductor longus. 

Gracilis. 

Pectineus. 

Tensor fasciae lata?. 

Sartorius. 

Crural. 

Neck of femur. 

Trochanter major. 



Arteries and Veins. 



Superficial epigastric artery and 
vein. 



Deep artery and vein of thigh. 
External circumflex artery and vein 

of thigh. 
Obturator nerve. 



PLATE XXII. 



PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEPER BLOOD 
VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA. 




Small Intestine (Jejunum and Ilium), Mesenteries, and Mesenteric Vessels. 



A. Superior mesenteric vein. 
/> Superior mesenteric artery. 
C. Ascending colon. 



D. Ileac arteries and veins. 

K. Ilium. 

F. Jejunal arteries ind veins. 



(i. Omentum ( raised and thrown back). 

H. I lecum. 

/. Transverse colon. 

e. Commencement of jejunum. 



I /. Jejunum. 

| ft. Mesenteries. 

| I. Right mesocolon. 



5. Ileocolic aiterie:- and veins. 



0. Right colic arteries and veins. 



PLATE XXIII. 



PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEPER BLOOD* 
VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA— Continued. 




-Internal Arrangement of Hepatic Blood= Vessels, (Liver 
Divided Transversely). 



A. 

a 


Gall=bladder. 
Right lobe. 
Left lobe. 


D. 

E. 
F. 


Inferior vena cava. 
Portal vein. 
Lobus quadratus. 


r v. 


Lobus Spigelii. 


V. 


Porta hepatis. 


b. 
cl. 
h. 


Anterior margin. 
Posterior margin. 
Suspensory ligament of liver. 
Round ligament of liver (in fossa 

umbilicalis). 
Hepatic artery. 
Cboledoch duct. 


k. 
1. 

n, 

0. 

P- 
0- 


Cystic duct. 
He]3atic duct. 
Ductus venosus. 
Cystic artery. 
Fundus of gall=bladder 
Neck of gall=bladder. 
Hepatic veins. 




Fig. 2.— Internal Structure of Kidney, 
with Blood= Vessels and Ducts. 



a. Cortical. 

b. Pyramid. 

r. Mammillary process. 

(/. Calyx renal is. 

e. Pelvis renalis. 

/. Ureter. 

g. Renal artery. 

h. Renal vein. 



PLATE XXIV. 



PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEPER BLOOD= 
VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA— Continued. 




Large Intestine, with Principal Blood-Vessels. 



A. Ascending colon. 

/-. Transverse colon. 

C. Descending colon. 

D. Sigmoid flexure. 

". Divided end of jejunum. 

b. Divided end of ilium. 

i. Commencement of rectum. 

1. Superior mesenteric artery. 

•'!. Middle colic artery and vein. 

4. Right colic artery 'and vein. 



/.'. Cecum. 

/•'. Superior mesenteric vein. 

Gr. Mesentery. 



I k. Transverse colon. 

I I. Right mesocolon. 

5. Ileocecal artery and vein 

I 6. Inferior mesenteric artery. 



PLATE XXV. 



PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF D2GESTION, WITH DEEPER BLOOD- 
VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA-Continued. 




'/lew of Posterior Surface of Deep Viscera of Abdomen ana Fervis, wUh 
Principal Blood=Vessels. 



a. Tenth dorsal vertebra. 

b. Last rib. 

c. Ilium. 

d. Diaphragm. 

e. Suprarenal gland. 

1. Descending abdominal aorta 

2. Inferior vena cava. 

o. Renal artery and vein. 

i. Common iliac artery. 



I /. Right kidney. 

g. Left kidney. 

| h. Sigmoid flexure of colon. 

| i. Ascending colon and cecum, 

I k. Rectum. 

5. Common iliac vein, 

(i. Internal iliac artery. 

7. Internal iliac vein. 

8. External iliac vein. 



101 



PLATE XXVI. 



PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF DIGESTION, WITH DEEPER BLOOD. 
VESSELS OF ABDOMINAL VISCERA— Continued. 




View 01 Posterior Surtacc ot Superficial Vi 
and Blood-vessels. 



jera of Abdomen 



ferior vena cava. 



>-. spleen. 
./. Pancreas. 
r, f. Pancreas. 
g. Duodenum. 

1. Celiac artery. 



perior mesenteric artery. 
ferior mesenteric artery. 
ternal hemorrhoidal artery and 



Ileum. 

Cecum. 

Ascending colon. 

Descending colon. 

Sigmoid flexure of colon. 

Rectum. 



7. Deft colic artery. 

8. Lift colic vein. 

9. Minor mesenteric vein. 

10. Splenic vein. 

11. Great mesenteric vein. 

12. Ilioeolic artery and vein. 

13. Riant colic artery and vein. 



PLATE XXVI. 



THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH PRINCIPAL 
VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYMPHATICS 




Posterior View of Solar Plexus and Minor Plexuses, witfc Some of th«. 
Deep Blood=Vessels. 



A. Diaphragm. 

B, b. Inferior vena cava (with hepatic 

veins). 

c. Esophagus. 

d. Stomach divided (with hranches of 

par vagum ). 
/. Head of pancreas. 

2. Right coronary artery. 

'i. Splenic artery. 

4. Hepatic artery (with hepatic plexus). 

5. Renal artery and vein- 



C. Spleen. 

D. Right kidney. 

M. Left kidney. 

g. Tail of pancreas. 

?'. Suprarenal glaud. 

k. Ureters. 



6. Internal spermatic artery and vein 

(with internal spermatic plexus). 

7. Superior mesenteric artery. 
•J. Solar (celiac) plexus. 

13. Superior aortic (abdomfnal) plexus 



PLATE XXVI 1 1. 



THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH PRINCIPAL 
VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYMPHATICS— Continued. 



Anterior View of the Trunk. 



.4. Right subclavian artery. 

3. Left subclavian artery. 

C. Right subclavian vein. 

D. Left innominate vein. 
jE7. Left internal jugular. 

F. Right internal jugular. 

G. Right innominate vein. 
H. Right lobe of liver. 

I. Left lobe of liver. 

J. Right lung. 



a. 



Clavicle. 
First rib. 
Thyroid gland. 
Trachea. 
Right bronchus. 
Left bronchus. 



K. Right axillary artery. 

L. Diaphragm. 

M. Left subclavian vein. 

N. Mesenteries. 

O. Superior mesenteric artery. 

P. Superior mesenteric vein. 

Q. Right axillary vein, 

i?. Abdominal aorta. 

S. Azygos vein. 

T. Left common carotid artery. 

g. Dorsal vertebra?. 

i. Posterior mediastinum. 

/,:. Edge of diaphragm. 

ra. Spleen. 

p. Ascending colon. 

r. Jejunum an J ilium. 



Arteries and Veins. 



1. Arch of aorta. 

4. Right common carotid artery. 

5. Innominate artery. 

6. Intercostal arteries and veins. 



Superior vena cava. 

Left lower azygos vein. 

Great mesenteric vein. 

Jejunal and ileac arteries and veins. 



Ducts and Glands. 



Thoracic duct. 
Right ( minor) duct. 
Bronchial glands. 
Pulmonic glands. 
Deep jugular glands. 



Axillary glands. 
Intercostal glands. 
Mesentery plexus with mesenteric 
glands, 



PLATE XXIX. 



THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH PRINCIPAL 
VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYMPHATICS-Continued. 



Posterior View of the Trunk. 



Right kidney. 

Left kidney. 

Diaphragm. 

Heart. 

Aorta. 

Left common iliac artery. 

Spinous process of first dorsal ver- 
tebra. 
First rib. 
Scapula. 
Spinal cord. 
Esophagus. 
Trachea. 

Parietal layer of pleura. 
Left bronchus. 
Pelvis of the kidney. 

Sacral median artery and vein. 
Innominate artery. 
Subclavian artery. 
Common carotid artery. 
Intercostal arteries, veins, and 

nerves. 
Ischiadic artery and vein. 
Superior gluteal artery and vein. 
Subclavian vein. 
Superior vena cava. 
Left lower azygos. 
Lumbar veins. 



H. Ascending vena cava. 

i-72. Left renal artery. 

K. Left common iliac vein. 

I j. Apex of right lung. 

M. Azygos vein. 



Ureter. 

Suprarenal gland. 

Peritoneum. 

Rectum. 

External sphincter ani muscle. 

Levator ani muscle. 

Great sacrosciatic ligament. 

Ilium. 

Psoas major muscle. 

Gluteus muscle. 



Intercostal glands. 
Intercostal nerves. 
Thoracic ganglions. 
Thoracic part of sympathetic nerve 

( with thoracic ganglion ). 
Anterior external cutaneous nerve 

of thigh. 
Crural nerve. 
Lumbar ganglion of sympathetic 

nerve. 
Ischiadic plexus. 



107 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 109 

Abdominal Openings.— The openings in the diaphragm 
are three in number : the aortic, for the passage of the aorta, 
vena azygos, and thoracic duct; caval, for the inferior vena 
cava ; and esophageal, for the esophagus and pneumogastie 
nerves. The other openings in the abdominal walls are the 
umbilicus, for the transmission (in the fetus) of the umbil- 
ical vessels; two femoral openings, or crural rings, for the 
passage of the femoral vessels; and an opening on either side, 
for the spermatic cord in the male, and the round ligament in 
the female. 

Abdominal Viscera. — The abdomen contains the greater 
part of the alimentary canal, some of the accessory organs of 
digestion, etc. Most of these, as well as the walls of the cav- 
ity, are covered by a serous membrane, the peritoneum. The 
principal contents of the abdomen are as follows : 

Stomach. Gall-Bladder. Uterus (during pregnancy) 

Large Intestine. Spleen. Abdominal Aorta. 

Small Intestine. Pancreas. Inferior Vena Cava. 

Appendix Vermifoemis. Kidneys. Eeceptaculum Chyli. 

Omenta. Ureters. Thoracic Duct. 

Mesentaries. Suprarenal Capsules. Spermatic Vessels. 

Liver. Bladder (when distended). Solae Plexus, Etc. 

Regions Of the Abdomen. — The abdomen, for conven- 
ience of description of its viscera, as well as of reference to 
the morbid condition of the contained parts, is artificially 
divided into nine regions, by two horizontal lines, one between 
the cartilages of the ninth ribs and the other between the 
crests of the ilia, and two vertical lines from the cartilages of 
the eighth rib on each side to the center of Poupart's liga- 
ment. The nine regions thus formed are named as follows : 





Right Side, 


Center. 




Left Side. 


Rl 


GHT IIVPOCHOXDRIAC. 


Epigastric. 


Left 


Hypochondriac. 


Ri 


ght Lumbar. 


Umbilical. 


Left- 


Lumbar. 


l;i 


gut Inguinal, or Iliac. 


Hypogastric. 


Left 


Inguinal, on Iliac. 



The Regional Contents are respectively as follows: 
Right Hypochondriac— Right lobe of liver, gall-bladder, 

duodenum, pancreas, hepatic flexure of colon, upper part of 

right kidney, and right suprarenal capsule. 



HO CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Epigastric. — Right two=thirds of stomach, left lobe and 
lobus Spigelii of liver, hepatic vessels, celiac axis, solar 
plexus, pancreas, and parts of aorta, inferior vena cava, azy- 
gos veins, and thoracic duct. 




Regions of the Abdomen and Their Contents. 
The dotted outline shows the edge of the costal cartilages. 

Left Hypochondriac— Splenic end of stomach, spleen, 
tail of pancreas, splenic flexure of colon, upper half of left 
kidney, and left suprarenal capsule. 

Right Lumbar. — Ascending colon, lower half of right kid- 
ney, and part of small intestine. 

Umbilical. — Transverse colon, transverse duodenum, part 
of the great omentum ami mesentary, part of jejunum and 
ileum, and receptaculum ehyli. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS HI 

Left Lumbar. — Descending colon, part of omentum, lower 
half of left kidney, and part of small intestine. 

Right Inguinal. — Right meter, cecum, appendix vermi- 
formis, and spermatic vessels of that side. 

Hypogastric. — Part of small intestine, bladder in chil- 
dren and when distended in adults, and uterus during preg- 
nancy. 

Left Inguinal. — Left ureter, spermatic vessels, and sig- 
moid flexure of colon. 

The Stomach, the principal organ of digestion, is pyriform 
in shape, of musculomembranous structure. Jt is about 
twelve inches in length by four inches in average diameter, 
and, when moderately full, will contain on an average from 
three to five pints of fluid. It is held in position by the lesser 
omentum, and is situated diagonally across the upper part of 
the abdomen, in the epigastric and right and left hypochon- 




Fig. 15. The Stomach. 

A, fundus : B, pylorus : C, lesser curvature : D, greater 

curvature ; E, esophageal opening ; P, duodenum. 

driac regions, above the transverse colon, and below the liver 
and diaphragm. The muscular fibers composing the walls of 
the stomach are arranged in three layers, the first running 



112 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

lengthwise of, the second around, and the other obliquely 
across, the stomach. When food enters the stomach, the lin- 
ing membrane, which in rest is of a pinkish color, becomes 
bright=red from the increased flow of blood to its bloodves- 
sels, and the secretion of gastric juice, the digestive fluid of 
the stomach, begins. The muscular fibers of the walls are 
stimulated to action by the presence of food in the stomach, 
and, by alternate contractions and expansions, give it a sort of 
motion which causes the contents to roll about in its interior, 
thoroughly mixing them with the gastric juice. The digested 
portion of the food is taken up into the circulation, and the re- 
mainder passes through the pyloric orifice into the small in- 
testine, where digestion is completed. Stomach digestion re- 
quires from one to four hours, according to the condition of 
the food when received. 

The Fundus, or cardiac end, is the left extremity of the 
stomach. It lies beneath the ribs, in contact with the spleen, 
to which it is connected by the gastrosplenic omentum. 

The Pylorus, or lesser end, lies iu contact with the ante- 
rior wall of the abdomen, near the end of the cartilage of the 
right eighth rib. The lesser curvature of the stomach is con- 
cave, extends from the esophageal to the pyloric orifice, along 
the upper border of the organ, and is connected to the liver 
by the gastro=hepatic omentum, and to the diaphragm by the 
gastrophrenic ligament. The greater curvature is convex, and 
extends between the same orifices, along the lower border, 
and gives attachment to the great omentum. The esophageal 
orifice is situated between the fundus and the lesser curva- 
ture. It is the highest part of the organ, and somewhat fun- 
nel=shaped. The pyloric orifice opens into the duodenum, the 
aperture being guarded by a kind of valve, the pyloric. 

The arteries of the stomach are the gastric, arising from the 
celiac axis, the pyloric and right gastroepiploic branches of 
the hepatic, and the left gastroepiploic and vasa branches of 
the splenic artery. Veins terminate in the splenic and portal 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 113 

The Peptic or Gastric Glands, which secrete the gastric 

juice, are located in the coating of the stomach, with the 
mouths opening inward. They are not always simple tubes, 
being frequently branched ; but whether simple or complex, 
their action is the same. Small rounded cells are formed at 
the beginning of the tubes and gradually work their way out- 
ward to the mouth, where they burst, liberating the gastric 
juice, a clear, straw-colored liquid, containing pepsin and hy- 
drochloric acid. In the healthy adult about fourteen pints is 
secreted daily. 

The Small Intestine is a convoluted tube, about twenty 
feet in length, and is the organ in which chylification takes 
place. When the food enters the small intestine it is a gray- 
ish, semi=liquid mass, called chyme. Here it is mixed with 
pancreatic juice, bile, and intestinal juice, all digestive fluids. 
The interior membrane is lined with hair=like projections, 
called villi, which absorb the digested food into the circula- 
tory system. The small intestine has three coats : a muscular, 
a cellular or submucous, and a mucous. The mucous coat 
contains the crypts of Lieberkuhn, or simple follicles; Brun- 
ner's or duodenal glands; and the solitary glands, situated 
throughout the intestine, though most numerous at the lower 
portion of the ileum. They are agminated into twenty to 
thirty oval patches, named Peyer's patches, situated opposite 
the mesenteric attachments, some of which are as much as 
four inches in length. They are most numerous and largest 
in the ileum. The small intestine is divided into three parts : 
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. 

The Duodenum is so called from being equal in length to 
the breadth of twelve fingers (about ten inches). It is the 
shortest, the widest, and the most fixed part of the small in- 
testine. It is only partially covered by the peritoneum, and 
has no mesentery. From the pylorus, it ascends obliquely up- 
ward and backward two and a half inches to the under sur- 
face of the liver, then descends three and a half inches in front 
of the kidney, and passes four inches transversely across the 



114 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



spine to the left side of the second lumbar vertebra, terminat- 
ing in the jejunum, where the mesenteric artery crosses the 
intestine. The ductus communis choledochus and the pan- 
creatic duct open into the descending portion. 

The Jejunum {jejunus, empty), named from being usual- 
ly found empty, includes about two=fifths of the remain- 
der of the intestine, its coils lying around the umbilical region. 
The Ileum named from its twisted course, comprises the 
remainder of the small intestine. It lies below the umbilicus, 
and terminates in the right iliac fossa, at the ileocecal valve. 

The Large Intestine ex- 
tends from the termination of 
the ileum to the anus, and its 
chief office is the expulsion from 
the body of the undigested por- 
tion of the food. It is about five 
feet in length, much larger than 
the small intestine, more fixed 
in position, and sacculated. In 
its course it describes an arch, 
which surrounds the convolu- 
tions of the small intestine. It 
has the same coats as the small 
intestine, and is divided into 
the cecum, colon, and rectum. 
The Cecum {cwcus, blind) 
is a blind pouch below the en- 
trance to the small intestine, ly- 
ing in the right iliac fossa. It 
is the beginning of the large in- 
testine, of which it is the 
most dilated part, measuring 
two and one=half inches in diameter. It is two=thirds covered 
by peritoneum. The ileocecal valve guards the entrance of 
the small intestine, and when the cecum is distended prevents 
anv reflex into the ileum. 




Fig. 16. Beginning of Large Intestine, 
Showing cecum, colon, appendix, ileo 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 115 

The Appendix Vermiformisisanarrow, worm=like tube, 
supposed to be the rudiment of the lengthened cecum found in 
all mammalia, except the orang-outang and wombat. It is 
about the size of a goose=quill, and is three to six inches long. 
It is directed backward and upward from the lower part of 
the cecum, being retained by a fold of the peritoneum. 

The Colon extends from the ileum to the rectum, and is 
divided into the ascending, transverse, and descending colon, 
and the sigmoid flexure. The ascending colon extends up- 
ward to the under surface of the liver, where it forms the he- 
patic flexure of the colon. The transverse colon crosses the 
abdomen just below the liver, stomach, and spleen, to the left 
hypochondrium, where it terminates in the splenic flexure of 
the colon. The descending colon descends in front of the left 
kidney to the left iliac fossa. 

The Sigmoid Flexure is the narrowest part of the colon, 
and is curved like the letter S, first upward, then downward, 
extending from the crest of the left ileum to the sacroiliac 
synchondrosis. 

The Rectum (rectus, straight) is the lower portion of the 
large intestine, extending from the sigmoid flexure to the 
anus. It is six or eight inches in length. The lower inch, or 
inch and a half, has no peritoneal investment. The sphincter 
ani closes the anus. The glands are the same as in the small 
intestine, except for the absence of Brunner's glands. 

The Liver is the largest glandular organ in the body, 
weighing from three to four pounds, and measuring trans- 
versely about twelve inches, in its anteroposterior diameter 
about six or seven inches, and in its greatest thickness about 
three inches. It is intended mainly for the secretion of bile, 
but effects also important changes in certain constituents of 
the blood in its passage through the gland. It is situated in 
the right hypochondrium, and extends across the epigastrium 
into the left hypochondrium. Its upper surface is convex and 
its under surface concave. The right extremity of the liver is 



116 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

thick and rounded, while the left side is thin and flattened. 
Five fissures on the under surface divide it into five lobes : 
right lobe, left lobe, liibus quadratus, lobus Spigelii, and lobus 
caudatus. The right and left lobes form the bulk of the liver, 
the right being about six times the size of the left. Of the 
three small lobes, the lobus quadratus is the largest, and the 
lobus caudatas the smallest. 




Fig. 17. Under Surface of the Liver, Showing Lobes, Fissures, Vessels, Etc. 

The liver is surrounded by a serous or peritoneal covering, 
folds of which form four ligaments, which attach it to the 
diaphragm. A fifth ligament, the ligamentum teres, resulting 
from the obliteration of the umbilical vein, likewise assists in 
keeping it in position. An inner, fibrous coat also lines the 
entire organ. The hepatic artery carries nutrition to the 
liver and its ramifying vessels. The portal vein conveys 
venous blood, collected from the digesting viscera, to the liver, 
where it undergoes certain changes, and this superfluous 
blood is again caught up by the branches of the hepatic veins 
and discharged into the vena cava. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 117 

Hepatic Lobules.-— The mass of the liver is composed of 
small, granular bodies, or lobules, about the size of a millet 
seed, held together by an extremely fine, areolar tissue, in 
which are the ramifications of the portal vein, hepatic duct, 
artery, veins, their brandies and capillaries, the lymphatics, 
and the nerves. Each lobule is composed of a mass of very 
small spheroidal cells, known as hepatic cells, and plexuses 
of biliary ducts and other vessels. These cells are the chief 
agents in the secretion of the bile. 

The Bile is a bitter, viscid, golden=brown, or greenish=yel- 
low, liquid, secreted by the liver, and discharged into the duo- 
denum, where it mixes with the chyme, aiding in digestion, 
chiefly acting on the fats. It is the only secretion of the body 
taken from the venous blood ; but it must be remembered that 
the blood collected by the portal system differs from ordinary 
venous blood, as it contains, with the waste materials of the 
body, portions of partially digested food gathered from the 
digestive organs. About three pounds of bile is secreted 
daily; when digestion is not going on, and the opening of the 
duct into the duodenum is closed, the bile is stored in the gall= 
bladder, to be discharged when the operation of digestion is 
again resumed. If a diseased condition of the liver shuts off 
the supply of bile through the regular channel, the constitu- 
ents enter the blood direct, causing the disease known as 
jaundice. 

The Biliary Ducts convey the bile to the intestine; they 
are the hepatic, the cystic, and the ductus communis choledo- 
chus. The small branches of the hepatic duct, which have 
their origin in the substance of the liver, and by their union 
form this duct, are also called biliary ducts. 

The Hepatic Duct leaves the liver in two branches, which 
unite to form a vessel the size of a quill and one and a half 
inches long. 

The Cystic Duct is the smallest of the three, being one 
inch long, and conveys the bile to and from the gall=bladder. 



118 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

The Ductus Communis Choledochus is the largest of the 
three, is about three inches long, of the size of a goose=quill, 
and formed by a union of the hepatic and cystic ducts. It en- 
ters the duodenum by a common opening with the pancreatic 
duct. 

The Gall-Bladder, the reservoir for the bile, is a conical, 
pear-shaped sac. three or four inches long, an inch in diam- 
eter, holds from an ounce to an ounce and a half, and lies on 
the under surface of the liver. 

The Pancreas (the sweetbread) is a racemose gland, sim- 
ilar in structure to the salivary glands, is about seven inches 
in length, of a grayish=white color, and situated behind the 
stomach. It secretes another digestive fluid, called the pan- 
creatic juice. While the bile acts particularly on the fats, the 
pancreatic juice acts directly on the sugars and starches still 
undigested. The head of the pancreas extends to the right, 
occupying a part of the epigastric region; the tail lies above 
the left kidney, in contact with the lower end of the spleen, 
and in the left hypochondriac region ; and the body lies be- 
hind the stomach and transverse colon and in front of the 
aorta, portal vein, inferior vena cava, splenic vein, and the 
crura of the diaphragm. The arteries are the great pancre- 
atic and small pancreatics, from the splenic; the superior 
pancreaticoduodenal, from the hepatic ; and the inferior pan- 
creaticoduodenal from the superior mesenteric. The veins 
open into the splenic and mesenteric veins. 

The Pancreatic Duct extends the whole length of the 
pancreas. It collects the pancreatic juice and carries it to the 
duodenum, which it enters about three inches below the 
pylorus, by an opening common to it and the ductus com- 
munis choledochus. 

The Ductless Glands.— The spleen, thyroid and thymus 
glands, and suprarenal capsules, constitute the ductless or 
blood glands. 

The Spleen possesses no excretory duct, is oblong, flat- 
tened, soft, very brittle, highly vascular, of a dark=bluish=red 
color, and is situated in the left hypochondriac region, em- 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 119 

bracing the cardiac end of the stomach. It is about five in- 
ches long, three inches wide, and two inches thick. The ves- 
sels are the splenic artery, which is large and tortuous, and 
the splenic vein, which empties into the portal vein. 

The Thyroid Gland or Body is a ductless organ, consist- 
ing of two lateral, conical lobes, connected across the upper 
part of the trachea by a narrow transverse portion, called the 
isthmus. It weighs from one to two ounces and is larger in 
females than males. Occasionally it becomes enormously en- 
larged, constituting the disease called bronchocele or goitre. 
The tissue of this gland is soft, spongy, and of a brownish-red 
color. Its functions are unknown. 

The Thymus Gland is a temporary organ, attaining its 
full size at the end of the second year, gradually dwindling 
thereafter, almost disappearing at puberty. It is situated be- 
low the thyroid in the neck, being composed of two unequally 
sized lobes, which occasionally emerge into one mass. It is a 
pinkish-gray color, soft and lobulated on the surface, and con- 
tains in a central cavity (the reservoir of the thymus) a 
milky fluid. 

The Suprarenal Capsules are two small, crescentic- 
shaped bodies, situated one on each kidney. They are quite 
large in fetal life, but diminish in adult age. The vessels are 
the suprarenal branches of the aorta, renal, and inferior 
phrenic arteries, and the suprarenal vein, which on the right 
side of the body empties into the inferior vena cava., and on 
the left, into the left renal vein. 

The Kidneys, the largest tubular glands of the body, are 
located in the lumbar region, behind the peritoneum, one on 
either side of the vertebral column, and secrete the urine. 
They are oblong and flattened, about four inches in length, 
two inches in breadth and an inch in thickness, the left being 
a little larger, thinner, and higher up than the right. Beds of 
surrounding fat, the blood-vessels, and the peritoneum cover 
them and hold them in position. The outer border is convex, 



120 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



and the inner, facing- the spinal column, concave. Each kid- 
ney in the male adult weighs from four and one-half to six 
ounces, and in the female one-half ounce less. The substance 
is dark-red in color, 
dense in texture, but 
easily lacerable. The 
vessels are the renal 
artery and vein. A 
deep fissure, the hil- 
um, in the concave 
border, gives ingress 
and egress to these 
vessels, the nerves, 
the lymphatics, and 
the ureter. 

The Ureters, one 
on each side, are cyl- 
indrical, m e m b r a- 
neous tubes, about 
sixteen or eighteen 
inches long, which 
c o n v e y the urine 
from the kidneys to 
the bladder. 

The Peritoneum 
(to extend around) 
is a serous mem- 
brane, and, like all 
membranes of this 
class, is a shut se- 
rous sac. Its vis- 
ceral layer is re- 
flected more or less completely over all the abdominal and 
pelvic viscera. Its free surface is smooth, moist, and shining. 
Its attached surface is connected to the viscera and the pari- 
etes of the abdomen by the subperitoneal, areolar tissue. In 




Fig. 18. 



The Peritoneum, 
iihiliiuien, showiu 



its reflections. 



THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 121 

the female it is not completely closed, the Fallopian tubes 
communicating with it by their free extremities, and thus 
it is continuous with their mucous membrane. 

Peritoneal Sacs. — The peritoneum is divided into two 
sacs, the greater and the lesser. The greater sac extends over 
the anterior two-thirds of the liver, behind and above the 
stomach, below, behind, and in front of the great omentum, 
and below the mesocolon. The lesser sac, or cavity of the 
great omentum, extends behind and below the liver and stom- 
ach, above the mesocolon, and within the great omentum. 

The Omenta. — The great (or gastrocolic) omentum con- 
sists of four layers of peritoneum, the most anterior and pos- 
terior of which belongs to the greater sac and internal to the 
lesser sac. The two anterior layers descend from the stomach 
and the spleen, over the small intestine, and then descend as 
the posterior layers, to enclose the transverse colon. 

The lesser (or gastrohepatic) omentum consists of two lay- 
ers of peritoneum, the upper belonging to the greater sac, the 
lower to the lesser sac. It extends from the transverse fissure 
of the liver, to the lesser curvature of the stomach, and con- 
tains in its free margin the 

Hepatic Artery. Ductus Communis Choledochus. 

Portal Vein. First Part of the Duodenum. 

Lymphatics. Hepatic Plexus of Nerves. 

The gastrosplenic omentum connects the stomach with the 
spleen, and contains the splenic vessels and the vasa brevia. 

The Mesenteries are folds of the peritoneum connecting 
the various parts of the intestinal canal (except the duode- 
num) to the abdominal walls. They are the mesentery 
proper; the mesocecum; the ascending, transverse, descend- 
ing, and sigmoid mesocolon ; and the mesorectum. 

THE PELVIC CAVITY. 

The Cavity of the Pelvis is a basin-like hollow contained 
between the pelvic bones, and forms the lower part and outlet 



122 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



of the general abdominal cavity. It contains the bladder, the 
internal organs of generation in both sexes, and the rectum. 
The uterus, or womb, in the female, lies in front of the rec- 
tum, and behind the bladder. During 
pregnancy it enlarges until at the latter 
end of the term, it nearly fills the abdom- 
inal cavity. 

The Bladder, the urinary reservoir, is 
a musculomembranous sac, located in the 
pelvic cavity. Its shape, position, and re- 
lations are greatly influenced by age, sex, 
and the degree of distension of the organ. 
During infancy, it is conical in shape, 
and projects into the hypogastric region. 
In the adult, when quite empty, it is a 
small, triangular sac, and, when fully dis- 
tended, extends into the abdomen, nearly 
as high as the umbilicus. It is larger in 
tin 1 female than in the male, and, when 
full, ordinarily contains about a pint. It 
has four coats and three openings, two 
for the ureters at the base, and that of the 
urethra, the channel of discharge, at the 
neck. Numerous ligaments hold the bladder in position. Tin 
vessels are branches of the vesical arteries and the iliac veins 




Fig. 19. Kidneys, Bladder, Etc. 
K, K. Kiduevs ; I!. blad- 
der ; U, C. ureters; A. 
aorta ; V C 1, inferior 
vena cava; 1, 1. opening 
of ureters : 2, opening of 
urethra. 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 



AN IMPORTANT SYSTEM. 

The constant wearing away of the organs and tissues of the body is as 
unceasingly being repaired by means of the nutriment furnished by the 
blood. This is carried and distributed by the circulatory system, which 
is necessarily one of importance. 

ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 

The movement of the blood through and to every part of the body is 
called circulation, and the organs which produce and carry it on are called 
the organs of circulation. These are the heart and blood-vessels; and the 
latter are divided, according to the kind of work done, into three classes: 
arteries, veins and capillaries. 

CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS. 

The aorta with its branches, the inter-connecting capillaries, and the 
returning veins, constitute the greater or systemic circulation. The arteries 
which convey the blood to the lungs, with the veins that return the blood 
to the heart, and the capillaries between, form the lesser or pulmonary 
circulation. The portal system of veins is an adjunct of the systemic 
system. The fetal circulation is that of the unborn child. 

In a work on embalming, a careful and thorough study of this won- 
derful system, which permeates every portion, and almost every tissue, of 
the body, is most necessary, and its treatment in this work, therefore, is 
very full. 



CHAPTER VII. 



THE HEART AND BLO 



THE HEART. 

The Heart is a hollow, muscular organ, conical in shape, 

placed between the lungs in the 

mediastinal space, and is sur- 
rounded by the pericardium. It 

is placed obliquely in the chest, 

the base being- directed upward 

and backward to the right, and 

the apex to the front and left, 

corresponding to the interspace 

between the cartilages of the 

fifth and sixth ribs, one inch to 

the inner side and two inches 

below the left nipple. It is 

placed behind the lower two- 
thirds of the sternum, and pro- 
jects farther into the left than 
into the right side of the chest, 
extending from the median line 
about three inches into the left 
and only one and a half inches 
into the right side. Its anterior 
surface is round and convex and 
formed chiefly by the right ven- 
tricle and part of the left. Its posterior surface is flattened 
and rests upon the diaphragm, and is formed ehieflv bv the 
left ventricle. 




Fig. 20. The Heart and Vessels. 

A. fight ventricle: B, left ventricle; C, 

right auricle: D. left auricle; E, arch of 

aorta : F, pulmonary arterv ; G, innomi- 

I, I. 



nate artery ; H. common carotids , 
subclavians ; K, superior vena cava 
pulmonary veins. 



THE HEART AND BLOOD 125 

The Pericardium (peri, around; kardia, heart) is a con- 
ical, membranous, closed sac, containing the heart and the 
roots of the great vessels. It lies behind the sternum and be- 
tween the pleurae, its apex upward, its base below, attached to 
the tendon of the diaphragm. It is a fibroserous membrane, 
composed of two coats, an inner or serous, and an outer or 
fibrous, the inner coat being reflected over the heart and ves- 
sels. Between the pericardium and the heart there is a small 
quantity of clear fluid, which acts as a lubricator, allowing 
the heart to move freely without producing friction. 

The Endocardium (endon, within; kardia, heart) is a 
serous membrane which lines the cavities of the heart, being 
continuous with the lining membrane of the great blood- 
vessels. It also assists by its reduplications in forming the 
valves. It is smooth and transparent, giving to the inner sur- 
face of the heart its glistening appearance. 

Heart's Weight and Size.— In the adult the heart is 
about five inches in length, and three and a half in breadth, 
and two and a half in thickness, being about the size of one's 
fist. It weighs from ten to eleven ounces in the male, and 
from eight to nine in the female. The heart increases in size 
and weight as age advances, but the increase is less marked 
in women than in men. 

Its Cavities. — The interior of the heart is divided by a 
longitudinal, muscular septum into two latera 1 halves, which, 
from their position, are named the right and left sides. A 
transverse constriction divides each half into two cavities; 
the upper cavity on each side is called the auricle, and the 
lower cavity, the ventricle. There are, therefore, a right and 
left auricle, and a right and left ventricle. Tbe walls of the 
ventricles are thick and strong, while those of the auricles are 
rather thin and less strong. The muscular septum of the 
heart is complete, no communication existing, after fetal life, 
1x4 ween the right and left sides. The right is the venous side 
of the heart, and receives the venous blood from every portion 
of the body, through the inferior and superior venae cav;e and 



126 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 




the coronary sinus, into the right auricle. The blood then 
passes from the right auricle into the right ventricle, and 
from the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery to the 
lungs for materialization. 
It is returned as arterial 
blood through the pul- 
monary veins to the left 
auricle; from the left 
auricle it passes into the 
left ventricle, and from 
the left ventricle it is 
carried t h r o u g li the 
aorta and its divisions 
to all parts of the body. 

The Right Auricle 
is larger than the left, 
and when full holds 
about two fluid ounces. 
Its walls are about a line (one-twelfth of an inch) in thick- 
ness, and are composed of two layers of muscular fibers, 
which are involuntary in their action. The right auricle con- 
sists of a principal cavity and the appendix auricula?. Two 
large veins, the superior and inferior vena? cava 3 , and the cor- 
onary sinus open into the right auricle. The latter is guarded 
by a valve, while the vena? cava 1 are not. The Eustachian 
valve, which is large in the fetus, and serves to direct the 
blood through the foramen ovale, is rudimentary in the adult, 
and is sometimes altogether wanting; it does not prevent the 
blood from flowing either way through the opening of the in- 
ferior vena cava. The auriculo-ventricular opening, com- 
municating with the right ventricle, is oval, about an inch 
broad, surrounded by a fibrous ring, and is guarded by the 
tricuspid valve. 

The Right Ventricle is conical in form and has a, capac- 
ity of about two fluid ounces. The walls are three or four 



Fig. 21. Valves of the Heart, 

Showing fibrous structure, and shape of valves; 
A, tricuspid ; B, bicuspid : C, aortic ; D, pulmonary. 



THE HEART AND BLOOD 127 

lines in thickness, being much stronger than those of the right 
auricle. The tricuspid valve consist of three triangular seg- 
ments, connected at their bases with the auriculo=ventricular 
orifice and by their sides with each other. The opening of the 
pulmonary artery is at the superior and internal angle of the 
ventricle, is circular in form, surrounded by a fibrous ring, 
and is guarded by the semilunar valve, which consists of 
three half=moonlike segments. 

The Left Auricle is smaller than the right, its walls being 
a line and a half in thickness, and it receives the arterialized 
blood from the lungs. The openings of the pulmonary veins 
are generally four in number, sometimes only three, as the 
two veins from the left lung frequently end in a common 
opening. These openings are not guarded by valves. The left 
auriculo-ventricular opening is smaller than the right, and is 
guarded by the mitral valve. 

The Left Ventricle is longer, thicker, and more conical 
than the right, projecting toward the posterior aspect. The 
walls are about twice as thick as those of the right ventricle. 
The aortic opening is small and circular, placed in front, and 
to the right, of the auriculo-ventricular opening, from which 
it is separated by one of the segments of the mitral valve. It 
is surrounded by a fibrous ring and is guarded by the semi- 
lunar valve. 

Valves of the Heart. — The flow of the blood in only one 
direction through the heart is affected by a system of valves 
placed at the openings. Between the auricles and ventricles 
are the auriculo-ventricular valves. The one on the right side 
is called the tricuspid valve, because it consists of three folds 
or flaps of membrane; that on the left side the bicuspid, be- 
cause made up of two flaps. The latter is also called the mi- 
tral valve from a fancied resemblance to a bishop's miter. 
These valves allow the blood to flow from the auricles to the 
ventricles, but are so arranged that it cannot flow in the op- 
posite direction. At the opening of the pulmonary artery 



128 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

from the right ventricle is the pulmonary valve, and at the 
opening of the aorta from the left ventricle is the aortic valve. 
These two sets of valves, on account of the half-moon shape of 
their segments (three each), are called semilunar valves. 
They control the flow of the blood into the arteries, and en- 
tirely prevent its regurgitation. Valves are not found at the 
openings of the venae cava' into the right auricle, nor of the 
pulmonary veins into the left auricle, being unnecessary, as 
the auricles do not contract with much force. Indeed, the 
blood would naturally run down into the ventricles whenever 
the valves between the cavities were opened. Not so the ven- 
tricles. It is necessary for them to expel their contents with 
great force. Especially is this true of the left one, which 
must send the blood to the extremities, for which duty its 
strong walls well fit it. The aortic valve prevents the reflow 
of the blood from the arteries during the expansion or relax- 
ation of the ventricle, and the mitral valve prevents the blood 
from being forced back into the auricle during the contrac- 
tion of the ventricle. 

Its Movements and Sounds.— The movements of the 

heart are two, contraction and relaxation. When the heart 
contracts, its chambers become smaller and the blood is 
forced from them into the blood-vessels; when it relaxes, or 
regains its proper size, the chambers are again filled with 
blood, ready to be sent out into the arteries by the next con- 
traction. The first movement is called systole, and the latter, 
diastole. The alternation of these movements constitutes the 
beating of the heart, which is heard so clearly between the 
fifth and sixth ribs, and can be felt so distinctly at the wrist, 
where it is known as the pulse. 

There are two different sounds occurring alternately with 
each movement of the heart. The first sound, or that which 
occurs when the heart contracts, is caused principally by the 
closing of the valves between the auricles and ventricles. The 
second sound, or that which occurs when the heart begins to 



THE HEART AND BLOOD 129 

relax, is caused by the closing of the valves at the pulmonary 
and aortic openings. These sounds have certain character- 
istics by which it is possible to determine the condition of the 
valves of the heart, and to tell whether one or more of them 
is diseased. 

The average frequency of the pulse=beat, or heart=contrac- 
tion, is seventy=two to seventy=six times per minute. It varies, 
however, in different persons, and in the same person under- 
different conditions. Sudden emotions or sickness cause in- 
crease in frequency; it is also more frequent while a person 
is working than when resting 

Its Capacity. — At each contraction of the heart each ven- 
tricle forces into the vessels from two to two and one=half 
ounces of blood. The average amount of blood in the body 
of the average weight of one hundred and fifty pounds, the 
conditions being normal, is about fifteen to sixteen pounds. 
Hence, it will be seen that all the blood in the body passes 
through the heart in less than two minutes. As the heart is 
unceasing in its work day and night, the aggregate force ex- 
erted by it in twenty=four hours is something stupendous. 

THE BLOOD. 

The Blood is the liquid by means of which the circulation 
is effected. It permeates every part of the body except the 
cuticle, nails, hair, teeth, etc., its office being 
to carry nutrition to the different tissues of 
the body. It is the most abundant fluid in 
the body, comprising about one=tenth of the 
body's entire weight. 

Composition of Blood.— The blood is 

com posed of a thin, colorless liquid, the 

plasma, or liquor sanguinis, filled with red 

disks or cells. Tliese cells are so minute Fig. 22. Bk^d-Corpuscies. 

that it takes about thirty=two hundred laid side by side to 

measure an inch, and about sixteen thousand if laid flatwise. 




130 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 




Fig. 23. Blood-Crystals. 



A microscope shows them to be rounded at the edges with con- 
cave sides. There is also a white, globular cell to about every 
six hundred and sixty=six red ones. 
The plasma also contains fibrin, al- 
bumen, and such mineral substan- 
ces as iron, lime, magnesia, phos- 
phorus, potash, etc. The blood 
contains the material for building 
up every organ. The plasma is 
rich in mineral matter for the 
bones, and albumen for the mus- 
cles. The red corpuscles contain 
oxygen, which is so essential to 
every operation of life. It stimu- 
lates to action and tears down all that is worn out. In the 
latter process it unites with and burns out parts of muscles 
and other tissues, much as wood is burned. The unburned 
portion is caught up in the circulation, 
» carried back to the lungs, where it under- 

goes purification, only to be again sent 
forth on its mission. 

The Circulation of the Blood is an 
interesting study. The blood goes from 
the heart and then returns again to the 
heart. Starting with the left ventricle 
the blood is forced through the aorta and 
its branches to all parts of the body. 
From the arteries it passes through the 
capillaries. The second set of capillaries 
then takes it up and passes it into the 
veins, and they in turn into either the su- 
perior or inferior vena cava, from which 
it is emptied into the right auricle of the heart. It then 
passes into the right ventricle, from whence it is sent through 




Fig 24. Circulation of Blood. 

Sectional view of heart and 
vessels showing the course of 
Mood through same. 



THE HEART AND BLOOD 131 

the pulmonary artery to the lungs, to be returned through the 
pulmonary veins to the left auricle, and then to the left 
ventricle, from which place it started. Blood, when it leaves 
the left ventricle, and while it is in the arteries, is red in 
color ; when returning through the veins, it is bluish. Arterial 
blood is pure and contains much oxygen ; venous blood is im- 
pure, containing much carbonic acid and other waste matter. 
The blue, impure blood, while passing through the lungs, loses 
its carbonic acid gas and takes up oxygen, becoming again 
bright=red in color. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



THE BLOOD-VESSELS. 



THE ARTERIES. 

The Arteries are the vessels or canals which convey the 
blood from the heart to the different parts of the body. They 
have dense, strong, and very elastic walls. Though generally 
found empty after death, they still retain their cylindrical 
shape. Unlike the veins, no valves are found in the course of 
the arteries, though powerful valves are located at the pul- 
monary opening in the right ventricle and the aortic opening 
in the left ventricle. It is on account of the absence of valves, 
and because found empty after death, that the arteries arc 
chosen by the embalmer for the purpose of injecting the dead 
body. 

The Large Trunks are located generally as far as possible 
out of harm's way and are commonly found close to the bones, 
or running through safe passages provided for them. They 
are usually very straight and take the shortest route to the 
part of the body to be supplied by them with blood. Some 
arteries, however, are very tortuous in their course, as the 
facial and other arteries of the head, to accommodate them- 
selves to the movements of the parts. In their ultimate, mi- 
nute branchings the arteries connect with the veins through 
the capillaries. 

The Main Artery <>f the body is the aorta, which starts at 
the left ventricle of the heart and divides and subdivides into 
innumerable branches. With each division, these branches 
become smaller, finally terminating in a network of capil- 
laries. While each branch is smaller than the trunk from 
which it is derived, the combined area of the branches of an 

132 



THE BLOOD-VESSELS 133 

artery is greater than the area of the trunk, and the aggregate 
area of all the branches far exceeds that of the parent trunk, 
the aorta. 

The arteries are usually named, (a) from the part in the 
body where they are found, as the brachial, popliteal, iliac, 
etc.; (6) from the organ which they supply, as the hepatic, 
esophageal, mammary, etc. 

Arterial Anastomosis. — The arteries communicate freely 
with each other by anastomosis, or inosculation. This inter- 
communication is very free among the larger branches, but 
increases in frequency as the size decreases, being so numer- 
ous between the very smallest branches as to form a close net- 
work that pervades nearly every tissue of the body. In the 
extremities, the anastomoses are most frequent and of the 
largest size around the joints. By anastomoses between arter- 
ies, or arterial branches, in the same part of the body, col- 
lateral circulation is established in the case of a ligature, or 
the destruction of a principal artery. 

Accompanying Vessels. — The arteries are accompanied 
by veins, with which they are enclosed generally in a thin, 
fibro=areolar investment, or sheath. Frequently, an accom- 
panying nerve is enclosed also with the artery. This sheath is 
formed, usually, by a prolongation of the deep fascia of the 
part. The included vessels are loosely connected with their 
sheath by a. delicate areolar tissue. Some arteries, as those 
in the cranium, are not included in sheaths. 

Vasa Vasorum. — The walls of all the larger arteries are 
supplied with blood=vessels, called vasa vasorum (vessels of 
vessels), which carry nourishment to the external and middle 
coats, and, according to some authorities, to the inner coat as 
well. These arise from a branch of the artery, or from a 
neighboring vessel. Minute veins return the blood from 
these arterial coats, emptying finally into the venre cavse. 

Their Coats. — The walls are composed of three coats: in- 
ternal, or endothelial; middle, or muscular and elastic; ex- 



134 CHAM PI OX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

ternal, or cellular and connective. These coats are made up 
in turn of different layers. The internal coat consists of the 
endothelium, a layer of flat cells, and the tunica intinia, com- 
posed of elastic tissue in longitudinal arrangement. 

The middle coat is by far the thickest of the three coats, 
being formed of three fibrous layers, in circular, triangular, 
and longitudinal arrangement. In the largest arteries this 
coat is very thick, of a yellowish color, and highly elastic. It 
diminishes in thickness and elasticity as the arteries become 
smaller, while the proportion of muscular fiber increases. 

The external coat consists mainly of longitudinal, fibril- 
la ted, connective tissue, and contains elastic fibers in all but 
the smallest arteries. In the largest vessels it is thin, but in- 
creases in relative thickness, as the size decreases. In me- 
dium=sized arteries and larger there are two layers. 

The two inner coats are very easily separated from the ex- 
ternal by a ligature. If a fine string or thread be tied tightly 
around the artery and then removed, the external coat will be 
undivided, while the two interior coats will be found sepa- 
rated in the track of the ligature, and can be easily dissected 
from the outer coat. 

THE VEINS. 

The Veins are tubelike vessels that return the blood from 
the capillaries in the different parts of the body to the heart. 
They all carry carbonized or venous blood to the right side of 
the heart, except the pulmonary veins, which convey oxygen- 
ated blood to the left side. The portal vein, with the series of 
veins uniting to form it, is an appendage of the systemic sys- 
tem, and conveys the blood from the viscera of the digestive 
organs to the liver, from whence it is carried through the 
hepatic vein to the inferior vena cava. 

The veins, like the arteries, are found in nearly every tissue 
of the body. They have their origin in minute plexuses which 
communicate with the capillaries. At first exceedingly small, 



THE BLOOD-VESSELS 



135 



they increase in size and decrease in number as they gradu- 
ally unite and flow into one another; joining finally to form 
two large veins, the ascending and descending venae cavse, 
which empty into the right auricle. The veins, like the arter- 
ies, are supplied with nutrient vessels, the vasa vasorum. 

The veins are larger and more numerous than the arteries ; 
consequently, the capacity of the venous system is much 
greater than that of the arterial. This is not true, however, 
of the pulmonary veins. 

Venous Anastomosis. — Veins anastomose with each other 
much more freely than do the arteries, especially in certain 
regions, as in the cranium, neck, along the spinal column, etc. 
This communication exists between the larger trunks as well 
as between the smaller branches. 

Venous Coats. — The venous walls are composed of three 
coats : inner, or serous ; middle, or muscular and fibrous ; and 
outer, or connective and areolar. These coats are, with some 
modifications, analogous to those of the arteries. As they do 
not receive the direct impulse of the heart, their walls 
are much thinner and less elastic than those of the 
arteries; especially is this true of the middle coat. 
Unlike the arteries, when the veins are empty their 
walls collapse. Usually the blood remains in the 
veins for several days after death. 

Venous Valves. — In the veins, at convenient in- 
tervals, are placed strong and perfect valves, which 
allow the blood to flow through them only in the 
direction of the heart. Commonly, two valves are 
found opposite each other, especially in the smaller 
veins, and in the larger veins at points where other 
veins join them. ^J*; 

The valves are very numerous in the veins of the Valves - 
extremities, and much more so in the lower, where the blood 
is conducted against the force of gravity, than in the upper. 





136 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Too much standing', or too tight elastics, often cause the veins 
in the leg to swell, so that the valves cannot work; the veins 
then become permanently enlarged, or varicosed, and if they 
burst the bleeding may be profuse and even dangerous. 

A number of veins, however, are without valves. These are 
the veme cava?, hepatic, portal, renal, uterine, ovarian, cere- 
bral, spinal, pulmonary, umbilical, and the small veins gener- 
ally. There are rudimentary valves in the neck through 
which the blood will pass either way. 

Kinds of Veins. — Veins are divided, from their location 
and structure, into three classes: deep veins, superficial veins, 
and sinuses. 

Deep Veins accompany the arteries, in the same sheath, 
and are given usually the same names. The secondary arter- 
ies, as the radial, ulnar, brachial, etc., have each two veins, 
one lying on each side of the artery, called venae comites. The 
larger veins, as the axillary, subclavian, femoral, etc., have 
usually only one accompanying vein. The deep veins in the 
skull and spinal column, the hepatic, and some others, do not 
accompany arteries. 

Superficial or Peripheral Veins are sometimes called 

cutaneous veins, from the fact that they are found immedi- 
ately beneath the skin, between layers of superficial fascia. 
They drain the venous blood from the structures in the outer 
portions of the body, emptying into dee]) veins at convenient 
points. 

The Sinuses are venous channels, differing from veins in 
structure and distribution, but serving the same purpose. 
The sinuses of the cranium are formed by the separation of 
the layers of the dura mater and lie in deep grooves. Sinuses 
are also found along the spinal column and on the outer sur- 
face of the heart. 



THE BLOOD-VESSELS 



137 




tig. 26. Capillaries, 

With a tei'minating artery 
"and a commencing vein. 



THE CAPILLARIES. 
The Capillaries (capillus, a hair) are the minute network 
of vessels formed throughout the tissues of the body between 
the terminating arteries and the commencing veins. They so 
blend, however, with the extremities of these 
two classes of vessels, that it is not an easy 
matter to tell just where an artery ends and 
a vein begins. Their diameter is from one 
three=thousandth to one six=thousandth of 
an inch. The smallest are those of the brain 
and mucous membrane of the intestines; 
the largest, those of the derma and marrow- 
bones. 

Where Found. — They exist in nearly 
every part of every tissue of the body, and 
are so closely packed together, that it is impossible to prick 
the skin with the point of a needle without injuring many of 
them. They are altogether wanting in the epidermis, and its 
modified forms, the epithelium and endothelium, in the nails, 
hair, and teeth, and to a certain extent, in the cartilage. The 
number of capillaries, and the size of the interspaces, or 
meshes, determine the degree of vascularity of a part. 

By union with each other, the capillaries form a true plexus 
of vessels of nearly uniform diameter, branching and inoscu- 
lating in every direction, distributing blood to all parts as 
necessity demands. They receive the blood from the smallest 
subdivisions of the arteries, and carry on the work of nour- 
ishing and rebuilding the body. They also begin the process 
of removing the waste matter from the wornout portions of 
the tissues. 

Their Walls, which consist of a transparent, homogeneous 
membrane, continuous with the innermost layer of the ar- 
terial and venous walls, are so thin that their fluid contents 
readily exude through the delicate membrane, irrigating and 
nourishing the tissues in which they lie. 



CHAPTER IX. 



ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION. 



The Aorta, or great artery, is the main trunk of the sys- 
temic circulation. It commences at the aortic opening of the 
left ventricle of the heart, arching backward 
over the root of the left lung into the pos- 
terior part of the thorax, where it descends 
on the left side of the spinal column, through 
the aortic opening of the diaphragm, to the 
fourth lumbar vertebra, where it divides in- 
to the right and left common iliac arteries. 

tho- 

The 
arch is divided into the ascending, trans- 
verse, and descending portions. The upper 

, , c ,-. . . , , , . ,, ,, Fig. 27. Plan of Branches 

border of the arch is located in the thorax, of Aortic Arch. 

about an inch below the upper margin of the sternum ; the 
arch ends at the lower border of the fourth dorsal vertebra. 

The Branches of the Aorta arc as follows : 




From the Arch: 
Two Coronary. 

Innominate. 

Left Common Carotid. 

Left Subclavian. 

From the Thoracic Aorta: 
Pericardiacs. 
Bronchials. 
esophageals. 
Twenty Intercostals. 
Posterior Mediastinals. 



From the Abdominal Aorta: 
Two Phrenic 

C Gastric. 
Celiac Axis -I. Hepatic ' 

[ Splenic 
Superior Mesenteric 
Inferior Mesenteric. 
Two Suprarenal. 
Two Renal. 

Two Spermatic (or Ovarian). 
Eight Ltmbar. 
Middle Sacral. 



The Coronary Arteries arise from the aorta behind the 
semilunar valves, and run in the vertical grooves of the heart, 
to supply the tissues of the heart. 



ARTERIES OF TEE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 



139 



The Innominate arises from the summit of the arch of the 
aorta, is one and a half inches in length, and divides at the 

right sternoclavic- 
ular articulation 
into the right com- 
mon carotid and 
right subclavian. 
On the left side, 
these arise direct- 
ly from the arch 
of the aorta. 

The Common 
Carotid arises on 
the left side from 
the aorta, and on 
the right from the 
innominate, the 
left being longer 
^^jand deeper than 
the right. Their 
course is indicated 
by a line drawn 
from a point mid- 
way between the 
angle of the lower- 
jaw and the mas- 
toid process to the 
Ster noclavicular 

Fig. 28. Arch of Aorta and Its Branches. artidllationS. At 

the lower part of the neck they are separated only by the 
width of the trachea, and they are each contained in a sheath 
of the deep cervical fascia with the internal jugular vein ex- 
ternally and the pneumogastric nerve between the artery and 
vein. They divide at the level of the upper border of the thy- 
roid cartilage into the external and internal carotids. 




140 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

The External Carotid ascends from its origin to the space 
between the neck of the ramus of the lower jaw and the ex- 
ternal auditory canal, where it divides into the temporal and 
internal maxillary. It diminishes in size rapidly on account 
of the number and size of the branches given off. The 
branches, which supply the tissues of the neck, face, and 
head, and anastomose freely with those of the opposite side, 
are as follows : 

(1) The Superior Thyroid, the first branch, takes a 
downward course, and supplies the thyroid gland and muscle, 
larynx, etc. 

(2) The Lingual supplies the under surface of the tongue. 

(3) The Facial, the largest branch, ascends obliquely and 
tortuously forward and upward, and gives off four cervical 
and six facial branches. 

(4) The Occipital arises opposite the facial, and courses 
upward, and its branches anastomose freely with those of the 
vertebral and deep cervical. 

(5) The Posterior Auricular supplies the external and 
internal ear. 

(6) The Ascending Pharyngeal, the smallest branch, 

reaches certain muscles and nerves, the pharynx, and dura 
mater. 

(7) The Temporal, the smallest of the two terminal 
branches, is in direction a continuation of the external ca- 
rotid, and divides into the anterior and posterior temporal, 
which ramify over the surface of the skull, freely anastomos- 
ing with the branches from the opposite side. 

(8) The Internal Maxillary, the other terminal, passes 
inward at right angles to the vessel, to supply the deep struc- 
tures of the face. 

The Internal Carotid ascends in front of the transverse 
processes of the three upper cervical vertebrae, and close to 
the tonsil, traverses the carotid canal in the temporal bone, 
and, after passing the anterior clinoid process, and piercing 
the dura mater, divides into its terminal branches, the an- 
terior and middle cerebral. Its branches are: 



BLOOD-VESSELS OF HEAD, 
NECK, ETC. 



TWELVE PLATES-XXX.-XLI 



PLATE XXX. 



BASE AND INTERIOR OF BRAIN, WITH ORIGINS OF NERVES 
AND BLOOD=VESSELS. 




Section at Ease of Brain, Showing Origins cf Nerves and Arteries. 



A. 


- Anterior lobe of cerebrum. 




D. 


Cerebellum (arbor vitoe). 


11. 


Mid lie lobe oi cerebrum. 




E. 


Medulla oblongata. 


C. 


Posterior lobe of cerebrum. 
Fissure of Sylvius. 




f. 


Optic tract. 


ft! 


Longitudinal fissure of cerebrum. 




a. 


Pons Varolii. 


r. 


Commissure of optic nerves. 




ii. 


( 'rus cerebe.li ail pontem. 


<1. 


Tuber cinereum. 






Pyramidal body. 


c. 


Corpora inaminillaria v. candicantia. 


/.'.' 


Olivary body. 






Nerves. 




1. 


Olfactory | lirst pair). 




7. 


Facial, portio dura of seven 1 h pair. 


| 


Motor oculi (third pair). 




8. 


Auditory, portio mollis of seventh 
pair. 




Pathetic (fourth pair). 




!>. 


Glossopharyngeal of eighth pair. 
Pneumogastric of eighth pair. 


">. 


Trigeminus (fifth pair). 




In. 


C. 


Abducens (sixth pair). 




11. 


.Lingual or hypoglossal (ninth pair}. 






Arteries 




.1.' 


Vertebral. 

Basilar. 

A nterior spinal. 




19. 


Communicating branches (forming 
with anterior cerebral, interna 
carotid, and posterior or deep cere 


15. 


Posterior inferior cerebellar. 






bra! arteries, the circle of Willis j. 


18. 


Anterior inferior cerebellar. 




20. 


Internal carotid. 


) .'. 


Superior cerebellar. 




21. 


loss.e of Sylvius. 


13. 


Deep cerebral. 




1: 


Chorci-0. 
Corporis callosi. 



PLATE XXXI. 



BASE AND INTERIOR OF BRAIN, WITH ORIGINS OF NERVES 
AND BLOOD=VESSELS— ( Continued ) . 




Vertical Longitudinal Section of Brain, Cereorum, ant 
through Center. 



I. Frontal bone and frontal sinus. 

77. Crista galli. 

III. Perpendicular lamina of ethmoid 

bone. 

IV. Body of sphenoid. 

T". Posterior clinoid process. 

VI. Sella turcica. 

A. Anterior lobe of cerebri. 
/;. Middle lobe of cerebri. 
(J. Posterior lobe of cerebri. 

a. Convolutions of cerebrum. 

b. Sulci. 

c Corpus callosum. 

d. Genu corporis callosi. 

e. Splenium corporis callosi. 
/. Septum lucidum. 

</. Fornix. 

h. Anterior crus. 

i. Foramen of Monro. 

/.. Thalamus of optic nerve. 

/. Anterior commissure. 

in. Soft commissure. 

11. Posterior commissure. 

o. Pineal gland. 



VII. Sphenoidal sinus. 

VIII. Basilar part of occipital bone. 

IX. Occipital part of occipital )>on 

X. Vomer. 

XL Roof of pharynx. 

XII. Tentorium cerebelli enclosing 
straight sinus. 

D. (Cerebellum ( arbor vita? ). 

E. Medulla oblongata. 



p. Peduncle or crus of pineal gl 

q. Corpora quadrigemina. 

r. Pons Varolii, 

s. Aqueduct of Sylvius. 

t. Tuber cinercuin. 

v. Infunfiibulum. 

v. Pituitary gland. 

w. Commissure of optic, nerves. 

x. Optic nerve. 

?/. Fourth ventricle. 

a. Anterior valve of cere'bellun 

£. Artery corporis callosi. 



PLATE XXXII. 



BLOOD-VESSELS OF HEAD AND NECK. 







Arteries of Anterior Surface of Head and Neck. 



Zygomaticus major muscle. 
.Sternocleidomastoid muscle. 

Orbicularis palpebarum muscle. 

Levator labii superioris alseque nasi. 
Levator laliii superioris proprius. 
Zygomaticus minor muscle. 
Masseter muscle. 
Buccinator muscle. 

Triangularis menti muscle. 

Subclavian artery. 

Ascending cervical. 

Internal mammary artery. 



Trai 
Inf. 

Kxt 



>r ii 



Coron 
Angn 

Dorsals of nose. 



artery of neck, 
proid artery, 
laxillary artery, 
rtery of lower lip. 
rtery of upper lip. 



Sternohyoid muscle. 

Trachea. 

Quadratus menti muscle. 

Levator anguli oris muscle. 

Trapezius muscle. 

omohyoid muscle. 

Scalenus anticus muscle. 

Scalenus medius muscle. 

Clavicle. 

Thyroid gland. 

Larynx. 

Common carotid artery. 
Superior thyroid artery. 

Alariesof nose. 



Supraorbital artery. 
Infraorbital artery. 
Deep temporal artery (from intern: 

maxillary). 
Temporal (superflcialis) artery. 
Frontal branch of temporal artery. 



PLATE XXXIII, 



BLOOD-VESSELS OF LATERAL SURFACE OF HEAD, 
FACE. AND NECK. 




Platysma=myoides muse 

Trapezius muscle. 
Deltoid muscle. 
Splenitis capitis muscle. 



Zygoma ticus minor muscle. 
i Irbicularis oris muscle 
Triangularis menti muscle. 

External jugular vein. 
Occipital vein. 
Internal jugular vein. 
Anterior facial vein. 
Frontal vein. 

Oo.mmon branch, between external 

and internal jugular. 
Lal>i;il vein. 
Temporal vein. 



q. Quadratns menti mnsel 

r. Orbicularis palpebarum musci,. 

s. Frontal muscle. 

t. Levator labii superioris alseque n: 

m. Lower jaw. 

v. Digastricus maxillae inferioris. 

w. Mylohyoid muscle. 

x. Sternohyoid muscle. 

y. Omohyoid muscle. 

11. External carotid artery. 

12. Posterior auricular artery. 

13. Temporal (superficial) artery. 
18. Frontal artery. 



!). Cerebral opthalmic vein. 

15. External maxillary artery, 

Hi. Submental artery. 

17. Angular artery. 



PLATE XXXIV. 

ARTERIES OF ( RIGHT) SIDE OF NECK. 




A. Inferior maxillary. 

/}. Oshyoidcs. 

/•'. Trachea. 

c. Clavicle. 

il. Larynx. 

e. Thyroid gland. 

.'/. Acromion process. 

It. Mastoid process. 

i. Styloid process. 

/.-. Processus transversus atlantis. 

I. Digastric muscle ( anterior belly). 

ni. Mylohyoid muscle. 

1,2. Right common carotid artery. 

3. External carotid artery. 

4. Internal carotid artery. 

8. Ilyoid branch of lingual artery. 

9. External maxillary, or facial. 
12. Occipital artery. 

■"). Superior thyroid artery. 

6. Superior laryngeal artery. 

7. Lingua] artery. 

10. Ascending palatine artery. 
Submental artery. 



P. Sternocleidomastoid muscle. 
-R. Scalenus anticus muscle. 



Styloglossus muscle. 

Levator anguli scapula? muscle. 

Medius scalenus muscle. 

Omohyoid mus/cle. 

Sternohyoid muscle. 

Thyrohyoid muscle. 

Pharynx. 

Esophagus. 

Subclavius muscle. 

Major Pectoralis muscle. 



Posterior auricular artery. 
Temporal (superficial ) artery. 



artery. 
Hi artery 

ic artery. 



External th 

Axillary artery. 

Trunk of thyrocervical artery. 
Inferior thyroid artery. 
Ascending cervical artery. 
Transversalis humeri artery. 



PLATE XXXV. 

BLOOD=VESSELS OF ( RIGHT ) SIDE OF NECK. 

^;:£te. ,„,.,«*"»<«»»»* iv, „ „,,*' .„# 




a. 


Inferior maxillary (lower jaw). 


0. 


Styloglossus muscle 


b. 


, Os hyoides. 
Clavicle. 


P- 


Sternocleidomastoid. 


c. 


Q- 


Levator anguli scapit 


d. 


Larynx. 




Scalenus anticus. 


e. 


Thyroid gland. 


s. 


Scalenus medius. 


f. 


Trachea. 


t. 


Omohyoid muscle. 


ff- 


Acromion process. 


u. 


Sternohyoid muscle. 


h. 


.Mastoid process. 


V. 


Thyrohyoid muscle. 


k. 


Processus transversus atlantis. 


w. 


Pharynx. 
Esophagus. 


1. 


Digastric (anterior belly). 


X. 


hi. 


Mylohyoid muscle. 


.'/• 


Subclavian muscle. 


a. 


Hyoglossus muscle. 


2. 


Pectoralis major muscle. 


1. 


Superior vena cava. 


9. 


Internal maxillary vein. 


2. 


Left innominate vein. 


10. 


Anterior jugular. 


3. 


Right innominate vein. 


11. 


Arch of aorta. 


4. 


Right subclavian vein. 


12. 


I n iiomi nate artery. 


5. 


Axillary vein. 


13. 


Right common carol id arter; 


6. 


External jugular. 


14. 


Right subclavian artery. 


7. 


[nternal jugular. 


15. 


A s illary artery. 


3. 


Facial vein. 


20. 


External, maxillary, or facia 


16. 


External carotid artery. 


23. 


< >cd pital artery. 


17. 


Interna] carotid artery. 


24. 


Inferior thyroid artery. 


18. 


Superior thyroid artery. 


25. 


Transversalis humeri. 


L9. 


Lingual artery. 


26. 


Tr;msvcrsalis colli. 


21. 


Temporal arterv. 


27. 


External thoracis. 


aa. 


Posterior aricular artery. 








148 



PLATE XXXVI. 



3L00D-VESSELS OF NECK, TRUNK, AND UPPER 
EXTREMITIES. 



Principal Arteries and Veins of Neck, Thorax, and Arms, with Deep 
Blood-vessels of Abdominal Cavity. 



D. Sartorius muscle. 

E. Poupart's ligament. 
I. Lungs. 

G. Clavicle. 

H. Heart. 

M. Right auricle. 



A r . Left auricle. 
O. Right ventricle. 
P. Lett ventricle. 
8, 8. Kidneys. 
U. Diaphragm. 
V. Bladder. 



a. 


Lower jaw. 


1. 


Pericardium. 


b. 


Os hyoid. 


r. 


Esophagus. 


c. 


Larynx. 


t. 


Suprarenal capsules. 


d. 


Thyroid gland. 


u. 


Ureter. 


e. 


Trachea. 


w. 


Rectum. 


f. 


Esophagus. 


y- 


CJuadratus lumborum. 


h. 


First rib. 




Psoas muscle. 


a. 


Transverse abdominal. 


,, 


Supinator longus. 


/si 


Internal iliac. 


£ 


Flexor carpi" ulnaris. 


V- 


Spermatic cord. 




Fiexor pollicis longus. 




Tendon of biceps of elbow. 


p- 


Flexor digitoi iiun communis pro- 
fundus. 


A." 


Brachialis anticus. 






Arterie3 


ind ^ 


/■em. 


2. 


Ascending aorta. 


38. 


External iliac artery. 


3. 


Pulmonary artery. 


39. 


Inferior vena cava. 


4. 


Arch of aorta. 


40. 


Renal vein. 


6. 


Common carotid artery. 


41. 


Hepatic vein. 


7. 


Right subclavian artery. 


43. 


Common iliac vein. 


9. 


Left subclavian artery. 


44. 


Intern:;! iliac vein. 


10. 


Left innominate vein. 


49. 


Axillary artery. 


11. 


Right innominate vein. 


50. 


Axillary vein. 


12. 


Internal jugular vein. 


52. 


Basilic vein. 


12- 


Subcutaneous vein of neck. 


54. 


Brachial artery. 


t •'. 


Subclavian. 


56. 


Radial artery. 


Z6i 


Abdominal aorta. 


57. 


Ulnar artery. 


34. 
35. 


Common iliac artery. 
Internal iliac artery. 


62. 


Deep palmar arch. 


1. 


Superior vena cava. 


28. 


Celiac axis artery. 


5. 


Innominate artery. 


29. 


Superior mesenteric artery. 


8. 


Left common carotid artery. 


30. 


Inferior spermatic artery. 


15. 


Superior thyroid vein. 


31. 


Inferior mesenteric artery. 


17. 


Inferior thyroid vein. 


33. 


Renal artery and vein. 


18. 


Labial vein. 


37. 


Circumflex iliac artery and vein. 


19. 


Posterior cephalic vein. 


38. 


Iliolumbar artery and vein. 


20. 


Facial (or labial | artery. 


42. 


Internal spermatic vein. 


21. 


Anterior facial vein. 


45. 


External ilac vein. 


23. 


Pulmonary vein. 


46. 


Middle sacral artery and vein. 


24. 


Anterior branch of left coronary 


51. 


( 'ephalic vei n 




vein of heart. 


53. 


Median vein. 


25. 


Right coronary artery and vein of 


(ill. 


Recurrent radial artery. 




heart. 


61. 


Recurrent ulnar artery. 


27. 


Inferior phrenic artery. 


63. 


Superficial branch of radial. 



PLATE XXXVII. 



BLOOD-VESSELS OF ( LEFT ) SIDE OF HEAD AND FACE- 




<;. Body of maxillary. 

a. Frontal bone. 

b. Great wins of sphenoid bone. 

c. Superior maxillary. 
(I. Inner wall of orbit. 
e. Malar bone. 

1. Deep temporal artery and vein. 

2. Internal jugular vein. 

3. Anterior facial arteries ana" veins. 

4. Infraorbital artery and vein. 

1. Left common carotid artery. 

:;. External jugular vein. 

7. Occipital artery. 

n Posterior auricular artery and vein. 

!•. Temporal (superficial) artery. 

10. Internal maxillary artery. 

13. Posterior alveolar artery and vein. 



f. Inferior maxillary. 

h. Kxternal pterygoid muscle. 

I. Orbicularis oris muscle. 

m. Buccinator muscle. 



I 5. Posterior facial arteries and vein? 
I 16. Superior labial artery. 



17. Oc^ital v^iri. 



1-1. External maxillary artery. 

]."i. Coronaria labii inferioris artery. 

16. Coronaria labii superloris artery. 

17. Dorsal artery of nose. 
is. Angular artery. 

in. (Vrcbral opt balmic artery and vein. 

20. Frontal artery and vein. 



PLATE XXXVIII. 



POSTERIOR SURFACE OF LUNGS AND TRACHEA, WITH THEIR 
PRINCIPAL ARTERIES, VEINS, AND NERVES. 




a, Larynx. 

(j. Middle lobe of right lung. 



1,1. 
2,2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 



jommon carotid arteries. 
Internal jugular veins. 



Left pulmonary artery. 
Pulmonary veins. 

Great vein of heart. 
Innominate artery- 
Superior vena cava. 
Pneumogastric (vairus) nerve. 
Recurrent laryngeal branch of pneu- 
inogastric nerve. 



k. Right ventricle. 



8. Left ventricle. 

9. Right auricle. 

10. Apex of lungs. 

11. Lower lobe of lungs. 
12,12. Subclavian arteries. 

14. Pulmonary artery. 

15. Aorta. 

13. Recurrent branches of tracheal 

nerve. 

i-J. Recurrent branches of cardiac nervi 

!•"). Superior laryngeal nerve. 

16. Cardiac branch of sympathetic nervi 

17. Cardiac plexus. 



Fig, 2 





PLATE XXXIX. 



ARTERIES OF ANTERIOR SURFACE OF ARM, FOREARM, 
AND HAND. 



Fig. 1. 



-Superficial Arteries on Internal and Anterior Surface of 
Arm, Forearm, and Hand. 



Deltoid muscle. 
Pectoralis major muscle. 
Latissimus major muscle. 
Semilunar fascia of biceps. 
Coraco=brachia)is muscle. 
Long head of triceps. 
Short head of triceps. 
Brachialis anticus muscle. 
Internal intermuscular ligament. 
Internal condyle of humerus. 
Pronator teres muscle. 



1. Biceps muscle. 

2. Brachial artery. 

3. Radial artery. 

4. Supinator longus muscle. 

10. Volar branch of radial artery. 

11. Muscular branch to ball of thumb. 

12. 13, If. Branches from princeps pollicis. 
17. Common volar digital artery. 



q. Flexor carpi ulnaris. 

r. Extensor carpi radialis longus. 

s. Flexor pollicis longus muscle. 

t. Flexor digitorum communis sublimis, 

u. Abductor pollicis longus muscle. 

v. Extensor pollicis brevis muscle. 

w. Anterior annular ligament of wrist. 

x. Ball of thumb, abductor and flexor 

brevis pollicis. 

y. Tendon of flexor longus pollicis. 

2. Abductor pollicis muscle. 

5. Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. 

6. Palmaris longus muscle. 

8. Superficial palmar arch. 

9. Interosseous arteries. 

I IS. Volar ulnar artery. 

| 1!). Digitalis dorsalis artery. 

I 20. Deep or communicating branch. 



Fig. 2.— Deep Arteries of Arm, Forearm, and Hand— Anterior Surface. 



a. Coracobrachial muscle. 

b. Latissimus dorsi muscle. 

d. Short head of triceps. 

e. Brachialis anticus. 
/. Supinator brevis. 

(j. Internal intermuscular ligament. 

h. Internal condyle of humerus. 

i. Tendon of biceps (divided). 

k. Extensor carpi radialis longus. 

I. Extensor carpi radialis brevis. 

m. Tendon of long supinator (divided). 

1. Biceps muscle. 

2. Ulnar artery. 

3. Interosseous artery. 

8. Anterior recurrent ulnar. 

9. Posterior recurrent ulnar. 
12. Dorsal branch of radial. 
1-1. Superflcialis volte. 

11. Dorsal branch of ulnar. 



n. Radial insertion of pronator teres. 

j). Interosseous membrane. 

q. Flexor pollicis longus muscle. 

r. Flexor muscle (divided). 

s. Pronator quadratus muscle. 

t. Tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris 

(divided^ 

u. Anterior annular ligament (divided). 

v. Abductor digiti minimi muscle. 

w. Opponens digiti minimi muscle. 

x. Interosseous muscle. 

j 4. Radial artery. 

5. Deep palmar arch. 

| 6. Triceps muscle. 

17. Deep branch of ulnar. 

18. Princpes pollicis. 

19. Indicis radialis. 

20. Digitalis communis ( divide ' V 

21. Interossaa palmares. 



PLATE XL 



THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA, WITH PRINCIPAL 
VESSELS. 






Principal Chyiopoietic Viscera, Blood Vessels, and Ducts. 



is of liver. 
>f liver. 



A. Left lobe <if liver (under surface). 

/:. Right lobeof liver. 

C. Lobusquadral 

J>. L..i,ii<spisr.-lii 

K. Gallbladder. 

g. Hepatic duct. 

/. Descending part of duodenum, with 
placed entrance of choledoch duct. 

2. Splenic artery. 

3. Gastric artery. 
V Hepatic artery. 

1. Abdominal aorta. 

2. Celiac axis artery. 

6. Gastroduodenal arteries. 



F. Cystic duct. 

G. Lower margin of left lobe of liver. 
J I. Ductus communis choledochus. 

It. Left kidney. 



/.-. Pancreatic duct. 

//). Pancreas. 

o. Part of duodenum. 

5. Pancreas. 

6. Spleen. 
8. Stomach. 

7. Renal artery and vein. 

8. Superior mesenteric artery and vain. 
!>. Portal vein. 



PLATE XLI. 

CELIAC AXIS AND ITS BRANCHES. 




Pancreas, Spleen, and Duodenum in Position, the Stomach Having Been 
Raised and the Transverse Mesocolon Removed. 



ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 157 

( 1 ) The Tympanic, supplying the tympanum. 

(2) The Arteriae Receptaculi, supplying the walls of the 
sinuses, the Gasserian ganglion, and the pituitary body. 

(3) The Anterior Meningeal, supplying the dura mater. 

(4) The Opthalmic, supplying the eye and its append- 
ages. 

(5) The Posterior Communicating anastomoses with 
the posterior cerebral, a branch of the basilar. 

(6) The Anterior Choroid, supplying the choroid plexus, 
corpus fimbriatum, etc. 

(7) The Anterior Cerebral is joined to its fellow by the 
anterior communicating branch, which is about two lines long. 

(8) The Middle Cerebral, the largest branch, passes ob- 
liquely outward through the fissure of Sylvius, within which 
it divides into three branches : anterior, median, and poste- 
rior. 

The Subclavian arises on the left side from the arch of 
the aorta, and is divided into three portions by the scalenus 
anticus muscle, the parts being external, posterior, and in- 
ternal to that muscle. At the outer border of the first rib it 
becomes the axillary artery. Its branches are about all given 
off from its first portion. They are the vertebral, thyroid 
axis, internal mammary, and superior intercostal. 

The Vertebral, the first and largest branch, passes up the 
neck, through the foramina in the transverse processes of six 
cervical vertebrae, and enters the skull through the foramen 
magnum. It then passes in front of the medulla oblongata 
and joins its fellow to form the basilar artery. It gives off 
two branches in the neck, the lateral spinal and muscular, 
supplying the spinal column and neck, and four within the 
cranium, the posterior meningeal, anterior and posterior 
spinal, and posterior inferior cerebellar, supplying the upper 
part of the spinal column and back part of the brain. 

The Basilar, so named from its position at the base of the 
skull, is a single trunk formed by the junction of the two 



158 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

vertebral arteries, and -ascends from the posterior to the an- 
terior border of the pons Varolii, -where it divides into two 
Large branches, the right and left posterior cerebral. The 
latter arteries and their branches supply adjacent parts of 
the brain. 

The Circle of Willis is an anastomosis at the base of the 
brain, between the branches of the internal carotid and verte- 
bral arteries, to equalize the cerebral circulation. The two 
vertebral arteries join to form the basilar, which ends in the 
two posterior cerebral. These are connected with the internal 
carotid by the two posterior communicating. The circle is 
completed by the connection of the two anterior cerebral 
branches of the internal carotid through the short anterior 
communicating artery. 

The Thyroid Axis is a short, thick trunk, dividing almost 
immediately into three branches: 

( 1 ) The Inferior Thyroid, anastomosing with the su- 
perior thyroid, and giving of branches: the laryngeal, tra- 
cheal, esophageal, muscular, and ascending cervical, which 
supply those parts respectively. 

(2) The Transversalis Colli, dividing into two branches, 
superficial cervical and posterior scapular. 

(3) The Suprascapular, supplying the superficial tissue 
of the neck, back of the scapula, and the shoulder=joint. 

The Internal Mammary descends along the costal carti- 
lages to the sixth interspace, where it divides into the muscu- 
lophrenic and superior epigastric, the latter anastomosing 
with the deep epigastric branch of the external iliac. It gives 
off branches to the diaphragm, mediastinum, pericardium, 
sternum, intercostal spaces, etc. 

The Superior Intercostal gives off branches to the inter- 
costal spaces, to the posterior spinal muscles, and to the 
spinal cord. 

The Axillary is the continuation of the subclavian, ex- 
tending from the outer border of the first rib to the lower 
margin of the axillary space (armpit), where it becomes the 



ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 159 

brachial. It is deep seated at the beginning, but becomes 
superficial at its termination. Its seven branches supply the 
tissues of the thorax, shoulder, and mammary gland. 

The Brachial is the continuation of the axillary from the 
lower border of the armpit to where it divides into the radial 
and ulnar, which is usually about one=half inch below the 
bend of the elbow. It is superficial throughout its entire ex- 
tent, being covered by the integument and deep and super- 
ficial fasciae. Its branches are the superior profunda, nutri- 
ent, inferior profunda,, anastomotica magna, and muscular, 
which supply the tissues of the arm. The lower branches, 
particularly the anastomotica magna,, anastomose freely with 
branches from the radial and ulnar around the elbow both 
front and back. This anastomosis is of importance to the em- 
balmer when the brachial artery is raised, as that portion of 
the member below the point of injection is thereby supplied 
by collateral circulation. 

The Radial is one of the divisions of the brachial, extend- 
ing on the radial side of the forearm, from the bifurcation to 
the deep palmar arch, and terminates by anastomosing with 
the superficial palmar arch. Its branches supply the tissues 
of the radial side of the forearm, wrist, and hand, and inoscu- 
late with the branches from the brachial and ulnar arteries. 

The Ulnar is the other division of the brachial, along the 
ulnar side of the forearm. Its branches supply the tissues on 
the ulnar side of the forearm, wrist, and hand, and anasto- 
mose freely with branches of the radial and brachial arteries. 

The Superficial Palmar Arch is that part of the ulnar 
lying in the palm of the hand, and anastomoses with the su- 
perficialis volae from the radial and a branch from the radi- 
alis indicis at the root of the thumb. It gives off four digital 
branches to the sides of the fingers, except the inside of the 
index finger, which is supplied by the radia«lis indicis. 

The Deep Palmar Arch is formed by the palmar portion 
of the radial artery anastomosing with the deep or conimuni- 



100 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

eating branch of the ulna. It gives off the radialis indicia, 
palmar interosseous, perforating, and recurrent branches. 

The Thoracic Aorta begins at the lower border of the 
fifth dorsal vertebra, and descends along the left side of the 
spine to the aortic opening in the diaphragm, where it ends 
directly in front of the last dorsal vertebra. Its branches are: 

(1) The Pericardiac, which vary in number and origin, 
supplying the pericardium. 

(2) The Bronchial, supplying all the tissues of the kings. 
They vary in number and origin, being usually one on the 
right side and two on the left. 

I 3) The Esophageal, usually four or five in number, sup- 
plying the asophagus. 

(4) The Posterior Mediastinals, supplying the medias- 
tinum. 

I 5 I The Intercostals, usually ten in number on each side. 
dividing into the anterior and posterior branches, and supply- 
ing the upper spaces and the spinal cord and tissues of the 
Lack. 

The Abdominal Aorta descends along the spinal column 
from the diaphragm to the fourth lumbar vertebra, where ii 
divides into the right and left common iliacs. It diminishes 
in size rapidly on account of the many large branches given 
off in its course. Its branches are: 

I 1 ) The Phrenic, supplying the. under surface of the dia- 
phragm. 

< 2 i The Celiac Axis, arising near the diaphragm, running 
forward for half an inch and dividing into the gastric, 
hepatic, and splenic arteries. (See Plate XLI.) 

(a) The Gastric, supplying the cardiac end and lesser 
curvature of the stomach, and the lesser omentum. 

i The Hepatic, supplying the liver, gall-bladder, py- 
loric end and greater curvature of the stomach, duodenum, 
and pancreas. 

I c ) The Splenic, supplying the spleen, pancreas, and car- 
diac end and greater curvature of the stomach. The latter 



ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 163 

is supplied by the left gastroepiploic, a principal branch, 
which, after circling half way around the outer circumfer- 



W 



Fig. 29. The Abdominal Aorta and Its Branches. 

(Mice of the stomach, meets and anastomos.es with the right 
gastroepiploic, from the hepatic artery. 



162 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

(3) The Superior Mesenteric, supplying the small in- 
testine, cecum, and ascending and transverse colon. It 
arises about one=fourth of an inch below the celiac axis, arch- 
ing forward and downward to the left, and gives off these 
branches: inferior pancreaticoduodenal, vasa intestini 
tenuis, ileocolic, and right and middle colic. 

(4) The Inferior Mesenteric, supplying the descending 
colon, sigmoid flexure, and most of the rectum, giving off the 
following branches: left colic, sigmoid, and superior hem- 
orrhoidal. 

(5) The Suprarenal, supplying the suprarenal capsules. 

(6) The Renal, one on each side, supplying the kidneys. 

(7) The Spermatics (in the male), supplying the testes. 
(7a) The Ovarian (in the female), supplying the ovaries, 

uterus, Fallopian tube, and skin of the labia and groin. 

(8) The Lumbar, usually four on each side, supplying the 
lumbar vertebra?. 

(9) The Middle Sacral, arising at the division of the 
aorta and supplying the sacrum and coccyx. 

The Common Iliacs extend from the division of the aorta, 
at the fourth lumbar vertebra?, to the margin of the pelvis, 
where they each divide into the external and internal iliacs. 
They are each about two inches long, the right being some- 
what larger than the left. They give off a number of small 
branches to the peritoneum, psoas muscles, ureters, and sur- 
rounding cullular tissue. 

The Internal Iliac is a short, thick vessel, about one and a 
half inches long, extending downward to the upper margin 
of the sacrosciatic foramen, where it divides into an anterior 
and posterior branch. 

The Anterior Trunk gives off the following branches: 

(1) The Superior Vesical, distributing branches to the 
apex and body of the bladder, vas deferens, and ureter. 
This is that part of the fetal hypogastric artery which re- 
mains pervious after birth. The remaining portion dwin- 
dles after birth to a fibrous cord, in which condition it con- 
tinues through life. 



ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 163 

(2) The Middle Vesical (usually a branch of the above), 
supplying the base of the bladder and under surface of the 
seminal vesicles. 

(3) The Inferior Vesical (in the male), distributing to 
the bladder, prostate gland, and seminal vesicles. 

(4) The Middle Hemorrhoidal (usually arising with 
above), supplying the rectum. 

(5) The Uterine (in the female), supplying the uterus 
and broad ligament. 

(6) The Vaginal (in the female, same as 3), supplying the 
mucous membrane of the vagina and contiguous part of 
rectum. 

(7) The Obturator (sometimes arising from the posterior 
trunk and sometimes from the epigastric artery), the largest 
branch, giving off a number of branches within the pelvis and 
extending through the obturator foramen, dividing into the 
internal and external branches, which supply the muscles and 
tissues of the hip. 

(S) The Internal Pudic, the smallest of the two terminal 
branches, supplying the external organs of generation. 

(9) The Sciatic, the other terminal branch, distributing 
to the muscles of the back part of the pelvis and hip. 

The Posterior Trunk (of the internal iliac) gives off 
three branches : — 

( 1 ) The Iliolumbar, distributing to muscles in the lower 
lumbar and iliac regions. 

(2) The Lateral Sacral, supplying the sacral region. 

(3) The Gluteal, the largest branch of the internal iliac, 
and the apparent continuation of the posterior trunk, sup- 
plying the gluteus muscles. 

The External Iliac is larger in the adult than tlie internal 
iliac, and extends in an obliquely downward course, along the 
inner border of the psoas muscle, from the bifurcation of the 
common iliac to Poupart's ligament, where it enters the thigh 
and becomes the femoral artery. Besides a number of small 



104 CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 

branches to the psoas muscle and neighboring glands, it gives 
off two branches of considerable size: — 

1 1 ) The Deep Epigastric, which arises usually a few 
lines above Poupart's ligament, passes between the periton- 
eum and the transversalis fascia, to the sheath of the rectus 
muscle which it perforates, and ascends behind that muscle, 
to anastomose by numerous branches with the terminal 
blanches of the internal mammary and inferior intercostal. 

1 2 i The Deep Circumflex Iliac, which arises opposite the 
above and ascends obliquely behind Poupart's ligament to 
the anterior superior spinus process of the ilium, continuing 
thence along the crest of the ilium. It supplies the internal 
oblique and transversalis muscles, and other parts, and 
anastomoses with the iliolumbar, gluteal, lumbar, and deep 
epigastric. 

The Femoral is the continuation of the external iliac. It 
arises immediately behind Poupart's ligament, passes down 
the forepart and inner side of the thigh, and terminates at 
the opening in the adductor magnus muscle, where it be- 
comes the popliteal. Its course corresponds to a line drawn 
from the center of Poupart's Ligament to the inner side of 
the inner condyle of the femur. It is very superficial in the 
upper third of the thigh, where it lies in Scarpa's triangle in 
a strong, fibrous sheath, with the femoral vein on the inside 
and the anterior crural nerve on the outside. In the middle 
third it is more deeply seated, being covered by the sartorius 
muscle in addition to the integument and superficial and 
deep facia?, and contained in an aponeurotic canal, called 
Hunter's canal. The vein now lies on the outer side in close 
apposition with the artery, with the internal saphenous nerve 
still more external. The femoral artery gives off seven 
brunches, as follows : 

(1) The Superficial Epigastric, to the inguinal glands, 
superficial fascia of the abdomen, and the integument. 

(2) The Superficial Circumflex Iliac, to the skin over 

the iliac crest. 



G 

BLOOD-VESSELS OF PERINEAL 

REGIONS AND LOWER 

EXTREMITIES 

FOUR PLATES-XLII.-XLV 



PLATE XLII. 



BLOOD-VESSELS OF PERINEAL REGIONS. 






Arteries of Pelvis and Internal Genital Organs in Female Subject. 


(7,. 

b. 
c. 


Sacrum. 

Crest of ilium. 

.Spina ilii anterior superior. 


£ 

i. 


Uterus. 

Fallopian tubes. 

Lateral ligament of uterus. 


1. 

2. 
3. 

4 
5- 
6. 
7. 


Abdominal aorta. 

t lommon iliac artery. 

External iliac artery. 

Internal iliac artery. 

Uterine arteries. 

Internal spermatic arteries. 

fimbriated end of Fallopian tube. 


8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
15. 


Vessels of the lateral ligament. 
Ovum, with ovarian ligament. 
Poupart's ligament. 
Internal iliac muscle. 
Psoas magnus muscled 
Circumflex iliiic artery. 
Rectum. 



PLATE XLIII. 

BLO(M)=VESSELS OF PERINEAL REGIONS-Continued. 




Arteries of Pelvis in Male Subject. 



Last I urn 
Sacrum. 
Crest of ilium. 
Internal ilac inr 



.• vertebra, 
le. 



1. Abdominal aorta. 

2. Inferior mesenteric artery. 

3. Bladder. 

4. Common iliac artery. 

5. Ureters. 

,6. Psoas magnus muscles. 

7. Inferior epigastric arteries 



/. Transverse abdominal muscle. 

{/. Rectus abdominis muscle. 

k. Rectum. 

I. Vas deferens. 

8. Rectus abdominus muscle. 

9. Anterior superior spinous prooesr 
10 Internal iliac muscle. 

11. Inferior epigastric artery. 

12. Middle sacral artery. 

13. Internal spermatic artery. 




Fig. 




Fig. 3 




PLATE XLIV. 



ARTERIES OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES. 



Fig. 1.— Arteries on Internal Surface of Pelvis, Thigh, and Knee of 
the Right Extremity. 



A. Abdominal aorta. 

B. External iliac artery. 
C. Internal iliac artery. 

D. Femoral artery. 

0. Spinal canal. 
cl. Sacrum. 

g. Symphysis pubis. 

h. Crest of ilium. 

i. Anterior superior spine of I 

A\ Lesser sacrosciatic ligamen 

1. Rectum. 

m. Internal iliac muscle. 

n. Psoas major muscle. 

o. Pyriform muscle. 



1. 


Fourth lumbar vertebra. 


15. 


2. 


Fifth lumbar vertebra. 


16. 


4. 


Iliolumbar artery. 


17. 


5. 


Obturator artery. 


18. 


10. 


Middle hemorrhoidal artery. 


19. 


11. 


Vesical artery. 


20. 


12. 


Circumflex iliac ar-fery. 


22. 



Profunda femoris. 
Popliteal artery. 
Common iliac artery- 



Internal obturator muscle. 
Sartorius muscle. 
Vastus internus muscle. 
Rectus femoris muscle. 
Adductor magnus muscle. 
Semimembranous muscle. 
Tendo gracilis. 

Gastrocnemius (internus) muscle. 
Solens muscle. 



Circumflexa femoris interna. 
Perforating profunda femoral (IV 
Perforating profunda femoral (2). 
Perforating profunda femoral (3). 
Femoral in Hunter's canal. 
Anastomotica magna artery. 
Inferior internal articular of knee. 



A. 



Fig. 2.— Arteries on Dorsal Surface of Right Foot. 

Interosseous arteries. 



B. Dorsal pedis artery. 

e. Navicular bone. 

2. External tarsal artery. 

3. Internal tarsal artery. 
0. Digital arteries. 



| D. Astragalus. 

| d. Tuber ossis metatarsi (5.) 



8. Communicating branch 
palmar arch. 



deep 



Fig. 3. -Plantar Arch of Arteries in Sole of Right Foot. 



a. Oscalcis. 

6. Tuberosities of metatarsal bones. 

C. Head of metatarsal bones. 

d. short flexor of foot and toes. 

e. Abductor of great toe. 

/. Short flexor of great toe. 

1. Posterior tibial artery. 

2. External plantar artery. 

3. Branches of internal plantar. 

4. Digital arteries. 



g. Long flexor of great toe. 

h. Long flexor of toes. 

i. Accessory muscle. 

/.-. Abductor of t he toes (5). 

I. Short flexor of toes (5j. 

m. Transverse of foot. 

5. Communicating branch of deep 

plantar arch. 

6. Plantaris pollicis pedis. 

7. Iiitcrosseus plantar artery. 







tt'-tf? XI 



PLATE XLV. 



ARTERIES OF PELVIS AND LOWER EXTREMITIES— Continued. 



Fig. 1.— Arteries on Anterior Surface of Right Leg and Foot. 

I C. Digital arteries. 



Anterior tibial artery. 
Point where anterior tibial is usually 
raised. 

Patella. 

Tuberosity of the tibia. 
Internal malleolus. 
External malleolus. 

Extensor digitorum communis 

longus. 
Peroneous tertius muscle. 

Recurrent tibial artery. 
Dorsal artery of foot. 
External malleolaris artery. 
Interna) malleolaris artery. 



q. Tendo communis oxtensoris. 

a:. Ligament of patella. 

>/. Tibialis anticus muscle. 

z. Extensor pollicis pedis longus, 

y. Soleus muscle. 

8. Gastrocnemius muscle. 



IS. External tarsal artery. 
111. Internal tarsal artery. 
20. lnterosste metatarsi dorsalis. 



l?lg- 2.— Arteries on Posterior Surface of Right Leg. 



A. Popliteal artery. 

B. Posterior tibial artery. 

C. Anterior tibial artery. 

k. Popliteal space. 

I. Head of fibula. 

m. Fibula. 

p. Poplitens. 

y. Heads of gastrocnemius muscle. 

S. Perineus longus muscle. 

e. Perineus brevis muscle. 

£. Flexor longus pollicis pedis. 

10. Internal superior articular of knee. 

11. External superior articular of knee. 

12. Internal inferior articular of kuee. 



D. Posterior tibial at point where usually 

raised. 

E. Femoral artery. 

n. External malleolus, 

o. Internal malleolus. 

y. Short head of biceps femoris. 

t). Tibialis posticus muscle. 

1*. Flexor digitorum longus museie. 

i. Tendon of Achilles. 

k. Soleus muscle. 



13. External inferior articular of knee. 

15. Peroneal of fibula. 

17. External posterior malleolar. 



Fig. 



External plantar artery 
Plantar arch. 



a. Tuber os calcis. 



-Deep Arteries in Sole of Right Foot. 

| C. Digitalis pedis plantar. 



Posterior tibial artery. 
Internal plantar artery. 
Tibialis plantariP pollicis pedis. 



| d. Short flexor of toes. 

I 5. Perforating branches. 

7. Interosseous plantar. 

| 9. External plantar of toe. 



ARTERIES OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 173 

(3) The Superficial External Pudic, to the integument 
of the lower abdomen, penis and scrotum in the male, and 
labium in the female. 

( 4 ) The Deep External Pudic, to the skin of the scrotum 
and perineum in the male and labium in the female. 

(5) The Profunda Femoris, called also the deep femoral, 
is the largest branch. It arises from the back part of the 
femoral, one to two inches below Poupart's ligament, des- 
cends beneath the adductor longus muscle and terminates 
at the lower third of the back part of the thigh. It gives 
off the following branches : — 

(a) The External Circumflex, supplying the muscles at 
the front of the thigh. 

(b) The Internal Circumflex, supplying the muscles at 
the back part of the thigh. 

(c) The Perforating, usually three in number, piercing 
the adductor brevis and adductor magnus muscles, which 
they supply. The terminal branch of the profunda per- 
forates the adductor magnus muscle and is, hence, sometimes 
called the fourth perforating artery. 

(6) The Muscular Branches, varying from two to seven, 
and supplying chiefly the sartorius and vastus internus 
muscles. 

(7) The Anastomotica Magna, arising in Hunter's canal, 
and dividing into a superficial and deep branch, the latter 
anastomosing around the knee=joint with the superior inter- 
nal articular and recurrent tibial. 

The Popliteal is a continuation of the femoral, and ex- 
tends downward through the popliteal space behind the knee 
to the lower border of the popliteal muscle, where it divides 
into the anterior and posterior tibial. It gives off the fol- 
lowing branches: muscular (superior and inferior), cutane- 
ous, superior external and internal articular, azygos articu- 
lar, and inferior articular (external and internal). These 
supply the knee=joint and tissues around the knee, and an- 
astomose freely witli eaeli other and with other branches 
above and below the knee. 



174 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

The Anterior Tibial extends from the division of the pop- 
liteal to the front of the ankle=joint, where it becomes the 
dorsalis pedis. It is superficial in its lower third, lying on 
the anterior surface of the tibia. Its branches supply the 
tissues in its course and it gives off the internal and exter- 
nal malleolar at its lower part. 

The Dorsalis Pedis extends from the front of the ankle to 
the first interosseous space, where it terminates in the 
dorsalis hallucis and communicating. It gives off branches 
to the outer and front part of the foot and toes. 

The Posterior Tibial extends from the division of the 
popliteal along the back of the tibia to the fossa below the 
internal malleolus, where it divides into the internal and 
external plantar. Its branches supply the tissues of the leg, 
heel, and sole of the foot. 

The Internal Plantar passes along the inner side of the 
fool and great toe. 

The External Plantar passes along outward and for- 
ward, and at the base of the metatarsal bones it inosculates 
with the communicating branches from the dorsalis pedis, 
forming tin 1 plantar arch. Its branches supply the muscles 
on the outer part of the foot, interosseous tissues, the three 
outer toes, and the outer side of the second toe. 



CHAPTER X. 



VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION. 



The Systemic Veins may be classified as : (1) those of the 
head and neck, upper extremities, and thorax, terminating in 
the superior vena cava; (2) those of the lower extremities, 
pelvis, and abdomen, emptying into the inferior vena cava ; 

(3) the cardiac veins, opening directly into the right auricle 
of the heart. 

The Veins of the Head and Neck may be subdivided into 
four groups: (1) veins of the exterior of the«head; (2) veins 
of the diploe and cranium; (3) sinuses of the dura mater; 

(4) veins of the neck. ( See Plates XXX.— XXXVIII. ) 
The External Veins of the Head freely anastomose with 

their fellows of the opposite side and with adjacent branches. 
The principal ones are : — 

(1) The Facial, draining the forehead and front of the 
face, and emptying into the internal jugular. 

(2) The Temporal, a large vein, commencing by a minute 
plexus on the side and vertex of the skull, draining the side 
of the head, and uniting with the internal maxillary to form 
the temporomaxillary. 

(3) The Internal Maxillary, receiving branches corres- 
ponding to those of the internal maxillary artery. 

(4) The Temporomaxillary, formed by a union of the 
last two, descending through- the parotid gland between the 
sternomastoid muscle and the ramus of the jaw, and dividing 
into two branches, one of which passes inward to join the fa- 
cial and enters the internal jugular, while the other is joined 
by the posterior auricular and becomes the external jugular. 

175 



176 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

(5) The Posterior Auricular, descending behind the ex- 
ternal ear and receiving the stylomastoid and some tribu- 
taries from back of the ear. 

(6) The Occipital, gathering the blood from the back part 
of the head. 

The Veins of the Diploe are large and capacious, their 
walls being thin and formed only of epithelium, resting upon 
a layer of elastic tissue, and presenting at irregular intervals 
pouch=like dilatations, or culs=de=sac, which serve as reser- 
voirs <>f the blood. 

The Cerebral Veins are remarkable for the extreme thin- 
ness of their coats, in consequence of the muscular tissue be- 
ing wanting, and the absence of valves. They are divided 
into superficial and deep. 

The Superficial Cerebral ramify upon the surface of the 
brain, being lodged in the sulci between the convolutions. 
They receive branches from the substance of the brain and 
terminate in the sinuses. 

The Deep Cerebral, or ventricular, two in number, run 
backward and parallel between the layers of the velum inter- 
positum, pass out of the brain at the great transverse fissure, 
and unite into one before entering the straight sinus. 

The Cerebellar occupy the surface of the cerebellum and 
are disposed into tares sets: superior, terminating in the 
straight sinus; iuferior, terminating in the lateral sinuses; 
and lateral anterior, terminating in the superior petrosal sin- 
uses. 

The Sinuses Of the Dura Mater are venous channels anal- 
ogous to the veins, their outer coat being formed by the dura- 
mater and the inner by a continuation of the lining membrane 
of the veins. They are divided into: (1) those at the upper 
and back part of skull; (2) those at the base of skull. The 
former are : 

(l) The Superior Longitudinal occupies the attached 

margin of the falx cerebri, commencing at the foramen cecum, 
increasing in size as it runs backward, and opening into the 



VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 177 

torcular Herophili. It receives the superior cerebral veins, 
and numerous veins from the diploe, and dura mater. 

(2) The Inferior Longitudinal (or inferior longitudinal 
vein) is contained in the posterior part of the free margin of 
the falx cerebri, and terminates in the straight sinus. 

(3) The Straight is situated at the junction of the falx 
cerebri with the tentorium, is triangular in form, and in- 
creases in size as it runs obliquely downward and backward 
from the termination of the inferior longitudinal to the lat- 
eral sinus. 

(4) The Lateral, right and left, are of large size, situated 
in the attached margin of the tentorium cerebelli, increase in 
size as they proceed from behind forward, and empty into the 
internal jugular veins. 

(5) The Occipital, generally single, sometimes two, is the 
smallest of the cranial sinuses. It is situated in the attached 
margin of the falx cerebelli, and terminates in the torcular 
Herophili. 

The Sinuses of the Base of the Skull, with the lateral 
sinuses, form a complete circuit. (See Fig. 30.) They are: 

(1) The Cavernous are vessels of reticular structure, 
large in size, situated on either side of the sella turcica., ex- 
tending from the sphenoidal fissure to the apex of the petrous 
portion of the temporal bone. They receive some cerebral 
veins and the ophthalmic, a large vein receiving tributaries 
corresponding to the branches given off by the ophthalmic 
artery. 

(2) The Circular is formed by two transverse vessels, 
connecting the two cavernous sinuses^ forming with these a 
circle around the pituitary body. 

(3) The Transverse (or basilar) connects the two in- 
ferior petrosal and cavernous sinuses, at their junction. 

(4) The Inferior Petrosal commences in front at the 
termination of the cavernous sinus and behind joins the lat- 
eral sinus, external to the jugular foramen, forming with the 
lateral sinus the internal jugular vein. 



178 



CIIAMPIOX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 



(5) The Superior Petrosal is situated along the superior 
border of the petrous portion of the temporal bone in the 
front part of the attached margin of the tentorium, and con- 
nects the cavernous and lateral sinuses on each side. 

The Veins of the Neck, which drain the above, are the 
four jugulars — external, 
posterior external, anterior, 
aud internal — and the ver- 
tebral. 

The External Jugular 
receives the greater part of 
the blood from the exterior 
of the cranium and deep 
parts of the face, being- 
formed by a juncture of the 
posterior division of the 
temporomaxillary and pos- 
terior auricular. It com- 
mences in the substance of 
the parotid gland, on a 
level with the angle of the 
jaw, runs perpendicularly 
down the neck, crossing the 
sternocleidomastoid muscle, 
and terminates in the sub- 
clavian, on the outer side, 
or in front, of the scalenus anticus muscle. It has two pairs 
of valves, one at its entrance into the subclavian and the other 
just above the clavicle, which, however, do not prevent the 
regurgitation ot blood or upward flow of fluid. It receives 
the posterior external jugular, suprascapular, and transverse 
cervical veins, and sometimes the occipital. 

The Posterior External Jugular runs down the back of 
the neck, opening into the external jugular, just belov. the 
middle of its course. 







Fig. 30. Sinuses at Base of Brain. 



VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 179 

The Anterior Jugular commences near the hyoid bone 
and drains the front part of the neck, running downward and 
entering the subclavian near the external jugular. 

The Internal Jugular collects the blood from the interior 
of the cranium, from the superficial parts of the face, and from 
the neck. It is formed by the junction of the lateral and in- 
ferior petrosal sinuses, descends vertically and unites with the 
subclavian vein at the root of the neck, to form the innomi- 
nate. In its course down the side of the neck it lies at first on 
the outside of the internal carotid and then of the common 
carotid artery. It receives in its course the facial, lingual, 
pharyngeal, superior and middle thyroid, and the occipital. 

The Vertebral commences in the occipital region by nu- 
merous small veins from the deep muscles of the upper and 
back part of the neck, descends by the side of the vertebral 
artery, and empties into the innominate. 

The Veins of the Upper Extremities are superficial and 
deep. Both sets are supplied with valves, which are more 
numerous in the deep than in the superficial. 

The Superficial Veins lie in the superficial fascia, begin- 
ning at the back part of the hand, where they form a more or 
less complete arch. They are the anterior, posterior, and 
common ulnar, radial, median, median basilic, median ce- 
phalic, basilic, and cephalic. They anastomose freely with 
each other and with the deep veins. 

The Anterior Ulnar commences on the anterior surface 
on the ulnar side of the hand and wrist and ascends along the 
inner side of the forearm to the bend of the elbow, where it 
joins the posterior ulnar to form the common ulnar. 

The Posterior Ulnar runs along the posterior surface of 
the forearm to its juncture with the anterior ulnar. 

The Common Ulnar is a short trunk, formed by the 
union of the two former, and joins with the median basilic to 
form the basilic. It is sometimes wanting, in which case the 



180 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

anterior and posterior ulnars open separately into the median 
basilic. 

The Radial commences at the back of the thumb and 
radial side of the hand, communicates with the deep veins of 
tin 1 palm, courses along the side of th forearm, and unites at 
the bend of the elbow with the median cephalic to form the 
cephalic. 

The Median collects the blood from the superficial struc- 
tures on the palmar surface of the hand and along the middle 
line of the forearm. Just below the elbow it receives a branch 
from the venae comites of the brachial artery, and immediately 
divides into the median cephalic and median basilic. 

The Median Cephalic is a short vessel which passes (Hit- 
ward, joining the radial to form the cephalic. 

The Median Basilic is also short, but larger than the 
above, and passes obliquely inward, joining the common ulnar 
to form the basilic. 

The Basilic is a vein of considerable size, passes upward 
along the inner side of the biceps muscle, pierces the deep 
fascia a little below the middle of the arm, ascends in I he 
course of the brachial artery, and joins the venae comites of 
that vessel to form the axillary. 

The Cephalic ascends on the outer border of the biceps 
muscle, and terminates in the axillary vein just below the 
clavicle. 

The Deep Veins of the Upper Extremities accompany 

the arteries, usually as vena' comites, one on either side, and 
are connected at intervals by short transverse branches. The 
deep veins inosculate freely with each other and with the 
superficial branches. 

Two Digital Veins accompany each artery along the side 
of the lingers, uniting at their base and passing along the 
interosseous spaces in the palm, terminating in the venae 
comites of the superficial arch. Branches from these vessels 
on the ulnar side terminate in the dee]) ulnar veins. The lat- 



VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 181 

ter, as they pass in front of the wrist, communicate with the 
interosseous and superficial veins and at the elbow unite with 
the deep radial to form the vena? comites of the brachial 
artery. The interosseous veins accompany the interosseous 
arteries commencing in front of the wrist and terminating in 
the veme comites of the ulnar artery. 

The Deep Palmar Veins accompany the deep palmar 
arch, receive numerous tributaries, communicate with the 
deep ulnar at the side of the hand, and terminate on the outer 
side in the vena? comites of the radial artery. The latter con- 
tinue as the venae comites of the brachial artery. 

The Axillary is of large size, formed by the union of the 
basilic vein and the vena? comites of the brachial artery, at 
the lower part of the axillary space, and terminates beneath 
the clavicle, where it becomes the subclavian. It receives a 
number of tributaries, the largest being the cephalic, received 
near its termination. Valves are found in the axillary oppo- 
site the lower border of the subscapular muscle and at the 
termination of the cephalic and subscapular veins. 

The Subclavian is the continuation of the axillary, from 
the outer margin of the first rib to the sternoclavicular articu- 
lation, where it unites with the internal jugular to form the 
innominate. At the angle of this junction the thoracic duct 
enters on the left side, and the lymphatic duct on the right. 
It receives the external, anterior, and internal jugulars, and a 
brand) from the cephalic. 

The Innominates are two large trunks, one on each side 
of the root of the neck, formed by juncture of the subclavian 
and the internal jugular. The right is about one and a half 
and the left three inches long. They unite below the first rib 
to form the superior vena cava, and receive the vertebral, in- 
ternal mammary, inferior thyroid, and superior intercostal ; 
sometimes the left also receives some thymic and pericardiac 
veins. 

The Superior Vena Cava is about three inches long, 
receives all the blood from the upper half of the body, and 



Internal 


Mammary. 


Bronchial. 


Inferior 


Thyroid. 


Mediastinal. 


Superiob 


INTERCOSTALS. 


Pericardiac. 



182 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

terminates in the right auricle of the heart. It is partly cov- 
ered with the pericardium, and receives the right superior 
phrenic, vena azygos major, and small pericardiac and medi- 
astinal veins. 

The Principal Veins of the Thorax are the 

Right Azygos (Major). 
Left Lower Azygos (Minor). 
Left Upper Azygos (Minimus). 

The AzygOS Veins (see Fig. 31) are the only veins of 
this region needing particular description. They unite the 
superior and inferior venae cava 1 , supplying their place in the 
region behind the heart, where these trunks are wanting. 

The Right AzygOS begins by a branch from the right 
lumbar veins, passes through the aortic opening in the dia- 
phragm, and ends in the superior vena cava, having drained 
nine or ten of the right lower intercostals, the vena azygos 
minor, the right bronchial, esophageal, mediastinal, and verte- 
bral veins. 

The Left Lower Azygos begins by a branch from the 
left lumbar or renal, passes into the thorax through the left 
cms of the diaphragm, crosses the vertebral column and ends 
in the right azygos, having drained four or five lower inter- 
costals. 

The Left Upper AzygOS, sometimes very small or alto- 
gether wanting, receives veins from the intercostal spaces 
above the left lower azygos ; sometimes also the left bronchial. 

The Spinal Veins are divided into: (1) those placed on 
the exterior of the spinal column; (2) those situated on the 
interior of the spinal column; (3) those of the bodies of the 
vertebrae; (4) those of the spinal cord. They have no valves 
and empty into the vertebral and other veins. 

The Veins of the Lower Extremities, like those of the 
upper, are superficial and deep. Valves are more numerous 
in the veins of the lower than of the upper extremities, and, as 
in the upper, more numerous in the deep than in the super- 
ficial. 

The Principal Superficial Veins are the internal or long 

saphenous and the external or short saphenous. 



VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 



183 



filfrttif tltynit- 



The Internal Saphenous 

commences at the inner side 
wsmw^t the arch on the dorsum of 
the foot, ascends in front of 
the inner malleolus and along 
the inner side of the leg and 
thigh, and enters the femoral 
at the saphenous opening, one 
and one-half inches below 
Poupart's ligament. It re- 
ceives the blood from the 
superficial branches of the leg 
and thigh and, at the saphen- 
ous opening, the superficial 
epigastric, superficial circum- 
flex iliac, and external pudic 
veins. It also communicates 
with numerous deep yeins. 
The valves vary in number 

Svprarnal from t\VO tO Six. 

The External Saphenous 

is formed by the branches 
from the dorsum and outer 
side of the foot, and ascends 
behind the outer malleolus 
up the middle of the back of 
the leg, and empties into the 
popliteal vein. It receives a 
number of large tributaries 
from the back part of the leg 
and communicates at the foot 
and ankle with the deep 
veins. It has from three to 
nine valves, one of which is 
3i. venae Cavae, Venae Azygos, Etc. alwavs near its termination. 




184 CHAMPION TEXT Book ON EMBALMING 

The Deep Veins of the Lower Extremities, like those 
of the upper, accompany the arteries and their branches as 
vena 1 comites. 

The External and Internal Plantars unite to form the 
posterior tibial, which accompany the artery, and are joined 
by the peroneal veins. 

The Anterior Tibials arc formed by a continuation up- 
ward of the vena? comites of the dorsalis pedis artery, which 
form, by their junction with the posterior tibial, the popliteal. 

The Popliteal ascends through the popliteal space to the 
tendinous aperture in the adductor magnus muscle, where it 
becomes the femoral. It receives the sural, articular, and ex- 
ternal saphenous veins, and lias usually four valves. 

The Femoral accompanies the femoral artery through the 
upper two thirds of the thigh. In the lower part of its course 
it lies external to the artery; higher up it lies behind it; and 
beneath Poupart's ligament it lies to the inner side on the 
same plane. It has four or five valves, and receives numerous 
muscular tributaries, the profunda femoris, and internal 
saphenous. 

The External Iliac commences at the termination of the 
femoral beneath the crural arch, and passing upward along 
the brim of the pelvis, terminates opposite the sacroiliac sym- 
physis, by uniting with the internal iliac to form the common 
iliac. It receives tin 1 epigastric, circumflex iliac, and a small 
pubic vein. It frequently contains one, and sometimes two, 
valves. 

The Internal Iliac is formed by the venae comites of the 
branches of the internal iliac artery (except the umbilical). 
It receives the blood from the exterior of the pelvis, through 
the gluteal, sciatic, internal pudic, and Obturator veins, and 
from the organs of the pelvis through the hemorrhoidal and 
vesicoprostatic plexuses in the male and the uterine and vag- 
inal plexuses in the female. 

The Common Iliacs are formed by the junction of the ex- 
ternal and internal iliacs, and pass obliquely upward and in- 



VEINS OF THE SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION 185 

ward, uniting between the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae 
to form the inferior vena cava. The left is the longer, and 
receives, in addition to the iliolumbar and lateral sacral re- 
ceived by both, the middle sacral vein. 

The Inferior Vena Cava returns the blood to the heart 
from all parts of the body below the diaphragm. It extends 
from the juncture of the common iliacs along the front of 
the spine, on the right side of the aorta, through the tendin- 
ous center of the diaphragm, and terminates in the lower and 
back part of the auricle. At its termination is a valve, the 
Eustachian, which is large in fetal life, but usually small or 
altogether wanting in the adult. It receives the 

Eight and Left Lumbar. Right Supeabexal. 

Right Spermatic. Right Phrenic. 

Right and Left Renal. Right and Left Hepatic. 

The left spermatic, suprarenal, and phrenic usually enter the 
left renal. The above veins drain the blood from the organs 
and parts respectively named. 

The Cardiac Veins return the blood from the tissues of 
the heart into the right auricle. They are the great, middle, 
posterior, anterior, and right cardiac veins, vena? Thebesii, 
and the coronary sinus. The latter is a dilated portion of the 
great cardiac (coronary) vein, about an inch in length, and 
enters the auricle between the inferior vena cava and the 
aurioulo=ventricular aperture, its orifice being guarded by 
the coronary valve. 



CHAPTER XL 
THE OTHER CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS. 



THE LESSER OR PULMONARY CIRCULATION. 

The Pulmonary System consists of the pulmonary ar- 
tery, which convevs the carbonated or impure blood from the 
heart to the lungs, where it undergoes oxygenation; the pul- 
monary veins, which return the arterial blood to the heart; 
and the capillaries between. 

The Pulmonary Artery, which is the only artery which 
carries venous blood (except in fetal life), is a short, wide 
vessel, about two inches long. It arises from the left side of 
the base of the right ventricle in front of the aorta, passes 
upward and backward to the under surface of the aortic arch, 
to which it is attached by a fibrous cord, the remains of the 
ductus arteriosus of fetal life. At this point it divides into 
I wo branches, the right and left pulmonary arteries, which, 
passing to their respective lungs, again divide, sending a 
branch to each lobe. Within the lobes these branches divide 
and subdivide, to ramify throughout the lung tissue and end 
in the dense network of capillaries. In the lungs the branches 
of Hie pulmonary artery are usually above, and in front of, a 
bronchial tube, with the venous branch below. At the root of 
the lung the artery is in the middle, with the vein in front and 
the bronchus behind. 

The Pulmonary Veins are the only veins (except the um- 
bilical vein in fetal life) that carry arterial blood. Unlike the 
veins of the systemic system generally, they are devoid of 
valves, are only slightly larger than the arteries they attend, 
and accompany those vessels singly. They originate in the 
network of capillaries upon the walls of the ah-cells, where 



THE OTHER CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 



187 



they are continuous with the ramifications of the smallest 
branches of the pulmonary artery, and unite to form a single 
trunk from each lobe. The vein from the middle lobe of the 



TRIANGULARIS STERNI 
Internal MammarH Vessels % 



Left Phrenic Nerve 



Pleura pnlmonnits 
Pleura Costalix 




( Sympathetic Nerve 



Posterior 



Yema Azygos J/a. 
Thoracic Du Pneumogastric Nerves j 

Fig. 32. Transverse Section of Thorax, Showing Pulmonary Vessels, Heart, Lungs, Etc. 

right lung usually unites with that from the upper lobe, thus 
giving two veins from each side; occasionally, the two from 
the left side enter the auricle by a common opening. 

The Pulmonary Capillaries form plexuses which lie im- 
mediately beneath the mucous membrane, in the walls and 
septa of the air=cells and of the intercellular passages. They 
form a very minute network, the meshes being smaller than 
the vessels. The walls are very thin, allowing the air to come 
in contact with the blood within the vessels. The vessels of 
neighboring lobes are distinct from each other, and do not 
anastomose. 



188 CHAMP WX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

THE PORTAL SYSTEM OF VEINS. 

The Portal System is an appendix of the systemic. It is 
composed of lour large veins, the interior and superior mesen- 
teric, splenic, and gastric, which carry the blood, together 
with portions of the digested food, from the digestive viscera. 
These unite to form a large trunk, the portal vein (vena 
porta 1 ), extending from the pancreas to the liver, which it en- 
ters and ramifies, distributing its blood to every part. The 
venous blood, after undergoing certain changes in the liver, 
is again collected by the hepatic veins and emptied into the 
vena cava. 

The Portal Vein is about four inches long, being formed 
by the junction of the superior mesenteric and splenic, their 
union taking place in front of the vena cava and behind the 
upper border of the great end of the pancreas. Passing up- 
ward through the right border of the lesser omentum to the 
under surface of the liver, it enters the transverse fissure, 
where it is somewhat enlarged, forming the sinns of the portal 
vein; it then divides into two branches, the right being the 
larger but shorter. These branches divide and subdivide into 
still smaller branches which accompany the ramifications of 
the hepatic artery and hepatic duct throughout the substance 
of the liver. The portal vein lies behind and between the he- 
patic duct and artery, the former being to the right and the 
latter to the left. Filaments of the hepatic plexus of nerves 
and numerous lymphatics, surrounded by a quantity of loose 
areolar tissue, accompany these structures. 

The Inferior Mesenteric returns the blood from the rec- 
tum, sigmoid flexure, and descending colon. It ascends be- 
neath the peritoneum in the lumbar region, passes behind the 
transverse portion of the duodenum, and the pancreas, and 
terminates in the splenic vein. Its hemorrhodidal branches in- 
osculate with those of the internal iliac, thus establishing a 
communication between the portal and general venous 
systems. Other anastomoses with veins of the systemic sys- 
tem -also take place. 



H 
PORTAL AND FETAL SYSTEMS 



TWO PLATES-XLVI.-XLVL 



PLATE XLVI. 

PORTAL SYSTEM OF VEINS- 




Portal Vein and Its Branches, Liver, Stomach, Pancreas, Spleen, Portion of 
Large and Small Intest nes in Position (Transverse Colon Removed). 



PLATE XLVII. 

PETAL CIRCULATION WITH PLACENTA AND UMBILICAL CORD. 



a. Right ventricle of heart. 

b. Left ventricle of heart. 

c. Left auricle of heart. 

d. Origin of aorta. 

e. Arch of aorta. 

/. Pulmonary artery. 

g. Left branch (divided). 

h. Left pulmonary veins. 

i. Ductus arteriosus. 

k. Descending aorta. 

I. Superior vena cava. 

m. Left innominate vein. 

n. Common iliac artery. 

0. External iliac artery. 
p. Internal iliac artery. 
q. Umbilical artery. 

r. Umbilicus. 

s. Umbilical vein. 

1. Fundus of bladder. 
u. Urachus. 

v. Placenta. 

■w. Amnion. 

x. Chorion. 

y. Spongy portion of placenta 

z. Left lobe of liver. 



Right lobe of liver. 

Gallbladder. 

Umbilical vein. 

Portal vein, anastomosing 

with umbilical vein. 
Ductus venosus. 
Hepatic vein. 
Inferior vena cava. 
Lobus Spigelii. 
Kidney. 
Suprarenal capsule. 




4gr 



TEE OTHER CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 193 

The Superior Mesenteric returns the blood from the 
small intestine, cecum, and ascending and transverse colon. 
The large trunk, formed by the union of its numerous branch- 
es, ascends along the right side and in front of the corres- 
ponding artery, passes in front of the transverse portion of 
the duodenum, and unites, behind the upper border of the 
pancreas, with the splenic vein to form the portal vein. Usu- 
ally the right gastroepiploic vein empties into the superior 
mesenteric close to the termination, but in Plate XLV. it 
opens into the splenic vein. 

The Splenic commences by five branches, which return the 
blood from the substance of the spleen. These form a single 
vessel which passes from left to right behind the upper border 
of the pancreas below the artery and terminates at its greater 
end by uniting at a right angle with the superior mesenteric 
to form the vena portse. It is of large size, is not tortuous 
like the artery, and receives the following additional 
branches; vasa brevia, left gastroepiploic, pancreatic 
branches, pancreaticoduodenal, and inferior mesenteric. 

The Gastrics are two in number. The smaller (the pylo- 
ric) runs along the lesser curvature of the stomach toward 
the pyloric end, receives branches from the pylorus and duo- 
denum, and terminates in the vena portse; the larger (the 
coronary) begins near the pylorus, runs along the lesser curv- 
ature of the stomach toward the esophageal opening, and 
curves downward and backward between the folds of the 
lesser omentum to end in the vena portal. 

THE FETAL CIRCULATION. 

The Circulation in the Unborn Child is quite different 
from that in the child after birth. The nutrition of the em- 
bryo, though the whole unfolding is extremely complex, is at 
first of the simplest form, gradually developing by about the 
fifteenth clay into the vitelline circulation, the first stage of 
the blood=vascular system. Even during this stage the form 
of circulation is quite simple, being carried on partly within 



194 CHAM PI OX TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

the embryo and partly external to it, in the vascular area of 
the umbilical vesicle, by means of a tubular heart, from which 
and to which the blood is carried by two arteries and two 
veins. 

About the fifth week the vitelline circulation develops into 
the placental circulation, the second stage of the blood=vascn- 
lar system, and the one with which we have to deal especially 
under this head. The placental circulation continues until 
birth, being gradually transformed into the aftel -birth circu- 
latory system, the third stage. In order to understand better 
the plan by which the placental circulation is carried on> we 
will first explain some organs and modifications of organs 
peculiar to the circulation in fetal life. (See Plate XL VI.) 

The Placenta is the organ by which the connection be- 
tween the fetus and mother is maintained, serving- the pur- 
poses both of circulation and respiration. It is a soft, spongy, 
vascular body, adherent to the uterus, and surrounding the 
fetus, with which it is connected by the umbilical cord. There 
are, therefore, two parts, the maternal or uterine portion, and 
the fetal or inner portion. The former is developed from the 
decid.ua vera, while the latter is formed out of the villi of the 
chorion. The maternal portion consists of a number of si- 
nuses formed by an enlargement of the vessels of the uterine 
wall. These bring the uterine blood into close proximity with 
the villi of the fetal placenta, which dip into the sinuses. The 
interchange of fluids necessary for the growth of the fetus and 
for the depuration of the blood takes place through the Avails 
of the villi, though there is no direct continuity between the 
maternal and fetal vessels. The fetal vessels form tufts of 
capillaries, the blood from which is returned by small veins 
which end in tributaries of the umbilical vein. The maternal 
arteries open into spaces communicating with a plexus of 
veins which anastomose freely with each other, and give rise, 
at the edge of the placenta, to a venous channel, the placental 
sinus, which runs around its whole circumference. The pla- 



TEE OTHER CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 195 

centa is detached from the uterus at birth, forming the chief 
part of the after=birth. 

The Foramen Ovale. — In the fetus there is a communi- 
cating opening in the septum between the two auricles, called 
the foramen ovale, which allows the blood to pass from one to 
the other. It is at first a free, oval opening, but about the mid- 
dle period of fetal life a fold grows up from the posterior wall 
of the auricle to form a sort of valve. After birth, as respira- 
tion is established, and there remains no longer any need for 
this short=cut in the circulation, the foramen ovale gradually 
closes. Bj about the tenth day the closure is complete and 
all communication between the two sides of the heart hence- 
forth ceases. 

The Eustachian Valve is formed by a semilunar dupli- 
cature of the lining membrane of the right auricle, its convex 
margin being attached to the wall of the inferior vena cava, 
at its entrance into the auricle. It is large in fetal life and 
serves to direct the blood from the vena cava on through the 
foramen ovale into the left auricle. It also prevents the flow 
of the blood in the opposite direction. The valve dwindles 
after birth, being conmionty small, and sometimes altogether 
wanting, in the adult, though occasionally it persists in adult 
life. 

The Umbilical or Hypogastric Arteries arise from the 
internal iliacs, a short distance from their points of origin, 
ascend along either side of the bladder, pass out of the um- 
bilicus as a part of the umbilical cord, and continue to the 
placenta, being coiled around the umbilical vein. The name 
hypogastric is applied usually to the portion within the fetus 
and umbilical to the portion without. They return 'the viti- 
ated blood from the fetus to the placenta. At birth the por- 
tions extending from the summit of the bladder to the umbil- 
icus contract and ultimately dwindle to solid, fibrous cords, 
thus continuing through life, while the portions between the 
bladder and their origin in the internal iliacs, though re- 
duced in size, continue as the superior vesical arteries. 



190 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

The Umbilical Vein is a large vessel, having its origin in 
tin- placenta. It extends along the umbilical cord, enters the 
abdomen at the umbilicus, and passes upward along the free 
margin of the suspensory ligament of the liver to its under 
surface, where it gives off branches to the left lobe and lobi 
quadratus and Spigelii. At the transverse fissure it divides 
into two main branches, the larger, after being joined by the 
portal vein, entering the right lobe, while the smaller, now 
called the ductus venosus, continues onward and joins the left 
hepatic vein, as it enters the inferior vena cava. The umbil- 
ical vein becomes completely obliterated shortly after birth 
and continues in adult life as the round ligament of the liver. 

The Ductus Arteriosus is a short tube, about half an inch 
long at birth and the size of a goose=quill. It forms the con- 
tinuation of the pulmonary artery, and serves to conduct the 
chief part of the blood from the right ventricle into the de- 
scending aorta. The ductus arteriosus begins to contract im- 
mediately after respiration is established, becoming com- 
pletely closed by the tenth day after birth, and remains in 
adult life as an impervious cord, connecting the pulmonary 
artery to the aortic arch. 

The Ductus Venosus is a short vein, being really a con- 
tinuation of the umbilical vein from the liver along the longi- 
tudinal fissure to the inferior vena cava, which it enters with 
the left hepatic vein. It continues in adult life as a fibrous cord. 

The Unbilical Cord appears about the end of the fifth 
week after pregnancy. It consists of the coils of the two umbil- 
ical arteries and the umbilical vein, united by a gelatinous 
tissue. 

Placental Circulation. — The origin of the blood destined 
for the nourishment of the fetus, as already explained, is the 
placenta. From the placenta it is carried to the fetus by the 
umbilical vein, which enters the fetus at the umbilicus, and 
passes upward to the under surface of the liver. Here a por- 
tion of the blood is supplied to the left, quadratus, and Spi- 



THE OTHER CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 197 

gelian lobes. At the transverse fissure the largest portion en- 
ters the right lobe, being joined by the portal venous blood. 
The remainder passes onward through the ductus venosus 
and enters the inferior vena cava jointly with the blood from 
the liver delivered by the left hepatic vein. The blood from 
the umbilical vein, therefore, enters the vena cava in three 
different ways : a portion enters through the liver and the he- 
patic veins; a greater quantity passes through the same 
organs in connection with the portal venous blood; and the 
smallest part enters direct through the ductus venosus. 

In the inferior vena cava this diversified blood is mixed 
with that being returned from the lower extremities and the 
abdominal viscera. This blood enters the right auricle, and, 
guided by the Eustachian valve, passes through the foramen 
ovale into the left auricle, where it becomes mixed with the 
small quantity of blood returned by the pulmonary veins. 
Thence it passes into the left ventricle, and then into the 
aorta, whence it is distributed almost entirely to the head and 
upper extremities, a small portion only reaching the descend- 
ing aorta. 

From the head and upper extremities the blood is returned 
through the superior vena cava to the right auricle. From 
there it passes into the right ventricle, but little of this cur- 
rent passing through the foramen ovale into the left auricle. 
From the right ventricle the blood enters the pulmonary ar- 
tery, but the lungs being solid only a small quantity is dis- 
tributed to them, the greater part passing through the ductus 
arteriosus directly into the descending aorta at its commence- 
ment. The portion distributed fc> the lungs is returned by 
the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, thence to the left ven- 
tricle, from which it also passes into the aorta. 

The mixed blood in the descending aorta passes downward 
to supply the lower extremities, the viscera of the abdomen, 
and the pelvis. The principal portion, however, is conveyed 
by the umbilical arteries to tlie placenta, where it undergoes 
purification, and is fitted for return to, and support of, the 
fetus. 



CHAPTER XII. 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSES. 



The organs of the special senses are five in number — those 
of sight, of hearing, of smell, of taste, and of touch — namely, 
the eye, the ear, the nose, the tongue, and the skin. 
THE EYE. 

The Organ of Sight is the eye, which is situated in a bony 
cavity of the skull (the orbit) protected by the overhanging 



1. Cornea. 

2. Aqueous humor. 

3. Pupil. 
Iris. 

Crystalline leus. 
Ciliary processes. 
Canal around lens. 
Sclerotic coat. 
Choroid coat. 
Ketina. 

Vitreous humor. 
Optic nerve. 
Superior rectus. 
Inferior rectus. 
Superior oblique. 




33. Vertical Section of Eye, Showing Chambers, 
Tunics, Muscles, Etc. 



brow. The position of the eye is such as to insure the most 
extensive range of vision, and, by the action upon it by nu- 
merous muscles, it 13 capable of being - directed to any point. 

The Eyeball, the globe of the eye, is spherical in shape 
and about one inch in diameter. It is imbedded in the fat of 
the orbit, but is surrounded by a thin, membranous sac which 

198 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSES 199 

isolates it, so as to allow free movement. The eyeball is com- 
posed of several investing tunics, or membranes, and of fluid 
and solid refracting media, called humors. 

The Tunics, or membranes, are three in number: (1) scle- 
rotic and cornea; (2) choroid and iris; (3) retina. 

The Sclerotic or outer membrane, (called sclera or scle- 
rotica), is white, tough, dense, and hard, giving form and 
shape to the eye, and constituting what is known as the white 
of the eye. It completely surrounds the eyeball, being much 
thicker behind than in front. 

The Cornea is the projecting, transparent portion of the 
external coat, and forms the front sixth of the globe. Its 
structure is quite complicated, being made up of four distinct 
layers. 

The Choroid is a thin, highly vascular membrane, of a 
dark=brown or chocolate color, lying immediately within the 
sclera. It is pierced behind by the optic nerve and extends as 
far front as the ciliary ligament. In addition to containing 
numerous blood=vessels, it absorbs the superfluous light 
which enters the eye. The ciliary processes, varying in num- 
ber from sixty to eighty, are formed by the plaiting and fold- 
ing inward of the various layers of the choroid at its front 
margin. 

The Iris (rainbow) is so called from its varied colors in 
different persons, which determines the color of the eye. It is 
a thin colored curtain stretched vertically across the front of 
the eye, and having a contractile aperture in the center, called 
the pupil. It is provided with circular and radiating, un- 
striped muscular fibers, by the action of which the central 
aperture may be enlarged or diminished. This is an impor- 
tant use of the iris, for by its contraction and expansion the 
amount of light admitted into the eye is regulated, as all the 
light reaching the eye enters through the pupil. Too much 
light irritates the retina. To prevent this the iris contracts, 
and the pupil becomes smaller. It too little light is received, 
more light is allowed to enter, by the iris relaxing, and thus 
allowing the pupil to become larger. The contraction of these 



200 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

fibers, unlike the action of unstriped muscular fibers gener- 
ally, on account of their peculiar arrangement, is very rapid. 
The admission of the rays of light through the pupil, which is 
immediately in front of the crystalline lens, prevents the im- 
age which falls upon the retina from being blurred, as would 
otherwise be the case. 

The Retina, the inner and last membrane, is of a delicate 
structure, and contains a complicated arrangement of nerv- 
ous tissue, given off from the optic nerve. It is the retina 
which gives rise to the sensation of sight. The retina never 
exceeds one=eightieth of an inch in thickness. A lining mem- 
brane covers the inner surface. About one=fourth of the outer 
thickness of the retina is composed of a multitude of colorless, 
transparent rods, packed side by side, like the seeds in the 
disk of a sunflower. These rods are interspersed with cones. 
From the ends of the rods and cones delicate nerve=fibers 
arise, expanding into glandular bodies. A layer of fine nerve= 
fibers and gray ganglions, much like the gray matter of the 
brain, constitutes the interior portion of the retina. From 
these ganglions emanate filaments which unite with the filters 
of the optic nerve. The rods and cones are to the eye what 
the bristles, otoliths, and Cortian fibers are to the ear. 

Chambers of the Eye. — The interior of the eye is divided 
into three chambers, each filled with a characteristic watery 
or semifluid substance, termed the humors. These are (1) 
the aqueous; (2) the vitreous; (3) the crystalline. 

The Aqueous Humor is a clear, limpid, alkalin fluid, en- 
closed in a delicate membrane that fills the anterior chamber 
of the eye between the cornea and crystalline lens. It is 
hardly more than water, holding a few organic and saline 
substances in solution. The iris divides it into two parts, a 
small portion lying behind that membrane. 

The Vitreous Humor, or body, forms about four=fifths of 
the entire globe, completely filling the cavity of the retina 
back of the lens. It is a perfectly transparent, albuminous 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSES 201 

substance, of a jelly=like consistency, enclosed in a structure- 
less, transparent membrane, the hyaloid, which merges at the 
edge of the crystalline lens into the suspensatory ligament, by 
which it is attached to the lens. 

The Crystalline Lens, or humor, is a transparent, elastic, 
doubly=convex body, which separates the aqueous and vitre- 
ous humors. It is denser, and capable of refracting light 
more strongly than either of these. It is more convex behind 
than in front and is kept in place by the suspensory ligament, 
which, attaches it to the ciliary processes. This ligament be- 
ing kept tense under ordinary conditions, the front surface 
of the lens is consequently flattened. The crystalline lens 
converges the rays of light which enter the eye and brings 
them to a focus on the retina. When in healthy condition the 
lens has the power of changing its capacity so as to adapt 
itself to near and to distant objects. 

The Lachrymal Apparatus consists of the lachrymal 
gland and its excretory ducts. The lachrymal gland is situ- 
ated in a depression of the bony wall of the orbit, at its outer 
angle. It is oval in form, about the size of an almond, and its 
office is to secrete the tears, which flow through small ducts 
and are spread out upon the eyeball. This secretion is con- 
stantly being formed, keeping the e3 7 eball moist, and further 
assisting in preventing friction between the ball and lids, and 
also in washing out dust and other foreign matter which find 
their way into the eye. At the inner angle of the eye is a 
small basin, called the lachrymal reservoir, which receives the 
overflow. At either side of this basin are two small canals 
through which the overplus passes into the nasal duct, which 
empties into the nose. 

Appendages of the Eyes.— The eyelids are folds of skin, 
which may be drawn over the eyeball, serving as a screen to 
protect it. They are lined on the inner surface with a very 
sensitive mucous membrane, which aids in preventing injury 
to the eye from any irritating substances. The eyelashes, 



202 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

which fringe the eyelids on their free edges, serve as a kind of 
sieve to exclude dust and other foreign bodies, and also shield 
the eye from too strong light. An oily substance is secreted 
by a series of small glands, called the Meibomian glands, lo- 
cated on the inner surface of the eyelids, which act as a lubri- 
cator. This substance, covering the edge of the lids, prevents 
the lids from adhering to each other, and also intercepts the 
overflow of tears upon the cheek. The conjunctiva is the mu- 
cous membrane of the eye. It lines the inner surface of the 
eyelids and is reflected over the forepart of the sclera and 
cornea. The inner canthus of the eye is the point for the in- 
troduction of the needle in the eye needle process. Six mus- 
cles give the eyeball its various motions: four straight, the 
recti, and two oblique, the obliqui. 

THE EAR. 

The Organ of Hearing, the ear, is a very complicated and 
important portion of the human anatomy. It consists of 
three parts: (1) the external ear; (2) the middle ear; (3) 
the internal car. 

The External Ear is too conspicuous and well-known to 
need much description. It is composed of a curiously folded 
sheet of cartilage, covered with skin, arranged to catch sound. 
Attached to it are three small muscles, scarcely more than 
rudimentary in man, but fully developed in many animals, so 
that the car can be freely moved. From the outer ear a tube, 
or canal, called the auditory canal, or external auditory 
meatus, extends inward about an inch or an inch and a quar- 
ter. A thin membrane, called the drum, or membrane of the 
tympanum, is stretched across the inner end. This membrane 
is kept soft and elastic by the secretion of a waxy substance, 
called the eai-wax, or cerumen. Short, stiff hairs spring 
from the walls of the canal, preventing the entrance of insects 
and foreign bodies. 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSES 



203 



The Middle Ear is located just within the drum of the ear, 
and is a small, irregularly=shaped chamber, or cavity, called 
the tympanum. Across this chamber hangs a chain of three 
tiny bones, the auditory ossicles, named respectively : ( 1 ) sta- 
pes (stirrup) ; (2) malleus (hammer) ; (3) incus (anvil). 
These bones are so very small that they weigh together but a 
few grains, yet they are covered with periosteum, are supplied 

with blood=vessels, and ar- 
ticulate with each other by 
perfect joints, and the 
joints, in turn, have syno- 
vial membranes, cartilages, 
ligaments, and muscles. 
The malleus is attached to 
the drum of the ear, and 
the stapes to a membrane 
of the internal ear, while 
the incus lies between the 
other two. A thin, deli- 
cate membrane separates 
the middle ear from the in- 
ternal ear. Opening into 
the middle ear is a small 
canal, called the Eustach- 
ian tube, which leads to 
upper part of throat. 
The Internal Ear is a cavity, very irregular in shape and 
complicated in structure, hollowed out of the solid bone. 
From its complex character it is sometimes called the laby- 
rinth. It is made up, in large part, of spiral tubes, which 
open in front into a sort of court or antechamber, about the 
size of a grain of wheat, called the vestibule. These spiral 
tubes consist of three semi=circular canals and the winding- 
stair of the cochlea, or snail=shell, which coils around two 
and a half times. In the walls of the internal ear are ex- 
panded the delicate fibrils of the auditory nerve. The laby- 
rinth is rilled with watery fluid, in which floats a little bag- 




Fig. 34. Sectional View of the Ear. 
1, Eustachian tube ; n, auditory canal ; c 
drum ; p. tympanum ; 1, incus ; 2, malleus ; i 
stapes : 4. cochlea : 5, 6. 7, semicircular canals 
8, internal auditory meatus. 



204 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



containing hair=like bristles, fine sand, and two ear=stones, 
called otoliths. Within the cochlea are minute tendrils, 
termed the fibers of Corti, which are regularly arranged, the 
longest at the bottom and the shortest at the top. 
THE NOSE. 
The Sense of Smell is seated in the nose, the external por- 
tion of which constitutes the most prominent feature of the 
face. It is composed of cartilage cov- 
ered with muscles and skin, and 
joined to the skull by small bones. 
The nasal passages, or chambers, are 
situated immediately back, and open 
at the rear into the pharynx, being 
lined by a continuation of the mu- 
cous membrane of the throat. This 
membranous lining is supplied with 
filaments or branches of the olfactory 
nerve, the nerve of smell, as shown 
in the accompanying cut. These fila- 
ments enter the nasal passages 
through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid (sieve) bone in 
the roof. It is through this sieve=bone that the needle is in- 
trodueed in the nasal needle process. By means of the 
peculiar property of the olfactory nerves it protects the lungs 
from the inhalation of deleterious gases and assists the organ 
of taste in discrimii ating the properties of food. To proper- 
ly enjoy this sense the lining membrane of the nose must al- 
ways be kept in a healthy condition. 

ORGANS OF TASTE AND TOUCH. 
The Tongue, the organ of taste, has already been quite ful- 
ly described in the chapter on "The Digestive Organs" (see 
p. 91). The sense of taste is located in the papilke upon the 
tongue and in the upper part of the palate. A substance, to 
have taste, must be soluble, as it can only come in contact 




Fig. 35. Sectional View of Right 
Nasal Cavity. 



THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSES 205 

with the nerve of taste by being absorbed. Taste enables us 
to distinguish between wholesome and unwholesome foods and 
drinks. It is in close sympathy with the stomach and often 
indicates that the stomach will rebel against certain articles 
of food. By taste, flavors are appreciated, and these, when 
pleasant, stimulate the flow of the saliva and gastric juice, 
and thus aid in the digestion of the various foods. 

The Skin is the seat of the sense of touch, and because its 
nerves are spread over the whole body, this is sometimes 
called the common sense. This sense enables us to appre- 
ciate pain, heat, cold, roughness, hardness, and numerous 
other qualities. The sense of touch is very acute in the tip 
of the tongue and the tips of the fingers. 



CHAPTEK XIII. 



THE BODY; ITS COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY. 



0~. 

8 




Lbs. 
4 


Oz. 

1 1.'. 


s 












8% 


2 1 /, 

Yz 

1 '4 


Thyroid gland and thymus. . 
Blood (about % of body)... 
Heart 


17 


% 

lOlj 


3 






10 H 


1', 

7 


Larynx, trachea, and bronchi 


2 

1 

1o0 


- "'1 
inn 


11% 




12% 

mi 


1% 


Total 



WEIGHT OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS. 

The weight of the different parts of the human body of 
average size (150 pounds) is about as follows: — 

Lis. 

The skeleton 21 

Muscles and tendons 77 

Skin and subcutaneous fat... 1G 

Brain 3 

Eyes 

Spinal cord 

Tongue and hyoid bone 

Esophagus 

Stomach 

Small intestine 1 

Large intestine 1 

Salivary glands 

Another classification is as follows: muscles and their ap- 
purtances, 66} pounds ; skeleton, 23 pounds ; skin, 10 pounds ; 
fat, 27 pounds; brain, 3 pounds; thoracic viscera, 3^ pounds; 
abdominal viscera, 10 pounds; blood (estimated amount 
drained from body), 7 pounds; total 150 pounds. Of the 
total amount about 86 pounds is water and 64 pounds is solid 
matter. 

THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS. 
The chief inorganic, proximate constituent of the human 
body is water, which, as will be seen from the above classi- 
fication, amounts to about 57 per cent, of the entire weight 
of the body. Some authorities make this proportion consid- 
erably larger. Next in quantity are calcium phosphates and 
carbonates; sodium and potassium chlorids; phosphates, and 
carbonates of soda and potash ; phosphates and carbonates of 
magnesium ; fluorid of calcium ; and certain compounds con- 

206 



Sodium .1 

Potassium 026 

Iron 01 

Magnesium 0012 

Silica 0002 

Manganese trace . 0000 



Total 100.0(100 



THE BODY: ITS COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY 207 

taining iron, silica, and manganese, and besides traces of ac- 
cidental substances, such as copper, lead, and aluminum. 
To these must be added ammonium, which exists in combina- 
tion with the urine, and carbonic acid, oxygen, and hydrogen 
gases. 

The percentage of the ultimate elements is as follows : — 

Oxygen 72 . 

Hydrogen 9.1 

Nitrogen 2.5 

Chlorin 085 

Fluorin 08 

Carbon 13.5 

Phosphorus 1 . 15 

Calcium 1.3 

Sulphur 1476 

The entire body, with its natural moisture, is composed, 
therefore, of about 84 parts of gaseous elements (the first 
five named above) to about 16 parts of solid elements. The 
greater part of the oxygen and hydrogen exists in the state 
of water, but the drier residue still contains some of the 
gaseous as well as the solid elements. The solids would con- 
sist of the following elements : oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, 
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, silica, chlorin, fluorin, potas- 
sium, sodium, calcium, lithium, magnesium, and iron (man- 
ganese, copper, lead ) , and may be arranged under the heads : 
proteids, carbohydrates (or amyloids), fats, and minerals. 
Such a body would lose in 24 hours (in grains) : water, 40,- 
000 nearly 6 lbs. ) ; other matters, 14,500. In the latter would 
be included: carbon, 4,000; nitrogen, 300; mineral matters, 
400. 

CHIEF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OF THE BODY. 

The chief chemical compounds of the body, many of them 
very complex indeed, are described in the following pages, 
together with the processes they undergo, either in building 
up and sustaining life, or in eliminating the waste. 

Fats arc widely distributed in the human body; indeed, 
protoplasm always contains some fat, and every cell, there- 
fore, has more or less of these compounds. The fat is stored 



208 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

up, usually, in the subcutaneous areolar tissues and about the 
abdominal viscera. Fats are neutral compounds, resulting 
from the union of glycerin, triatomic alcohol, with a mono= 
basic fatty acid. If the fatty acid is stearic acid, the result- 
ing fat is tri=stearin or stearin. Similarly, with palmitic 
and oleic acids, the corresponding fats, palmitin and olein, 
result. Ordinary fats are really mixtures, in variable 
amounts, of several fats: stearin, palmatin, and olein. 

When pure, fats are colorless, tasteless, and odorless, and 
are insoluble in, and lighter than, water. They are soluble 
in boiling absolute alcohol, ether, chloroform, and benzol, 
and arc neutral in reaction. As the result of exposure to 
physical, chemical, or living agents, they are readily divided 
into their constituent parts, glycerin and fatty acid. Fat 
taken in as food is not absorbed into the system until it 
reaches the small intestine, where the pancreatic juice acts 
upon it. The fatty acid, thus superated, combines with the 
sodium carbonate present and forms a sodium soap. A small 
amount of this soap emulsifies a large amount of fat, thus di- 
viding it into very minute globules, in which form it becomes 
absorbed. Many bacteria exercise a similar fat=splitting ac- 
tion, and, by their activity, fatty acids are formed in the in- 
testines. The bile secretion also aids in the absorption of fat. 
A part of the fat deposited in the body is derived directly from 
the fat in the food, and part is formed in the body out of pro- 
teins and carbohydrates. The fat deposited in the tissues serves 
as a reserve to generate heat and energy. The large amount 
of carbon and hydrogen contained in the fat explains the 
great quantity of heat generated when fat is oxidized, and 
the need of an abundance of fat as food in a cold climate. 

Carbohydrates comprise those substances which usually 
contain hydrogen and oxj 7 gen in the same proportion as does 
water (IPO) and six carbon atoms or a multiple of six. 
Recent investigations, however, have shown that there may be 
carbohydrates containing from four to nine or more carbon 



TEE BODY: ITS COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY 209 

atoms. Carbohydrates are present in comparatively small 
amounts in the animal body, either free or as constituents of 
certain complex proteids. They constitute, however, the 
greater part of the solids of plants, just as proteids make up 
the greater part of the solids of animal bodies. They are 
aldehyde or ketone derivatives of certain alcohols. Carbo- 
hydrates are classified as (a) monosaccharides or glycoses, 
including pentoses, hexoses, (dextrose, laevulose), and 
rhamnose; (5) di=saccharides or saccharoses, as cane=sugar, 
milk-sugar, maltose, and iso=maltose ; (c) poly=saccharides ; 
(d) mannite; (e) inosite. Dextrose or glucose (grape or 
starch=sugar) is formed during digestion. It is present in 
small quantity in the blood, and in lesser amount in normal 
urine. Lactose, (milk=sugar) occurs in the milk of all ani- 
mals, the amount varying from 3 to 6 per cent. Maltose, 
another sugar, is formed by the ferments of the saliva, pan- 
creas, and liver. The formation of dextrose precedes that 
of maltose. Starch, or amylum, is a highly complex carbo- 
hydrate, and is converted into and deposited as fat. It is 
insoluble in cold water. In the presence of chlorid of zinc, 
and other salts, it swells up and dissolves. On heating with 
water to 60° to 70°, it swells to a paste, but does not form 
a true solution. At a higher temperature, it does dissolve, 
forming soluble starch. Dextrin is the name of a number of 
compounds that are the first hydration products of starch. 
Glycogen is found in the liver, and in greater or less amounts 
in all the animal tissues. It is non=crystallized, white, taste- 
less powder, present in small amounts in normal blood. 

Proteins. — Representatives of this group are found in 
every living organism. They are present within the cell as 
an integral part of protoplasm, and are always present in the 
fluids without the cell. They contain, in addition to carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur, and some have 
phosphorus and iron. The animal organism cannot make 
protoplasm, hence lives and grows on inorganic nitrogen, 
sulphur, and phosphorus. These elements are supplied only 



210 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

through the proteins existing ready made in our food. How- 
ever, not all the members of this group are capable of sus- 
taining life; this is notably true of the albuminoids. Those 
members ar« of utility as real food, which, when acted upon 
by the digestive fluids, yield peptons, which in turn can be 
reconstructed into serum, albumin, and globulin. The mem- 
bers of this group constitute by far the most complex bodies 
known to the chemist. Proteins may be classified as (a) 
albuminous bodies, as albumins, globulins, peptons, etc.; (&) 
proteids, or complex albuminous bodies, which on cleavage 
yield members of the preceding group, as hemoglobins, caseins, 
mucleins, etc.; (c) albuminoids, or albumin=like bodies, as 
keratins, elastins, etc. Albumin coagulates in a slightly acid 
or neutral solution, especially in the presence of a neutral salt, 
as chlorid of Sodium. Globulin requires a neutral salt to keep it 
in solution. Hemoglobin, on heating, decomposes into hematin 
and globulin. The albumoses are precipitated by chlorid of 
sodium, and the precipitate, unlike albumin and globulin, 
dissolves on heating. Peptons are not coagulated by heat. 

Saliva is a mixture of the secretions of the parotid, sub- 
maxillary, and sublingual glands. The reaction of mixed 
saliva is usually alkaline, but, on fasting, during the latter 
part of the night, two or three hours after meals, and after 
much talking, may become acid; it also becomes acid on 
standing a few hours, Saliva is more or less viscid and foams 
readily. Its character varies according to the gland from 
which mostly derived; the parotid gland yields a fluid secre- 
tion, while slimy secretions are given out by the others. In 
fevers, the diminution or even suppression of the saliva re- 
sults, causing dryness of the mouth and throat and altered 
taste; a decrease is also noticed in diabetes, severe diarrhea, 
and cholera. Potassium iodid, or mercury, produces an 
abnormally increased flow, know as salivation. An increased 
flow is also caused by irritant poisons, such as acids and 
alkalis; by certain foods, as lemons, etc.; by some diseases, 
especially in inflammatory conditions of the mouth, tonsils, 



THE BODY: ITS COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY 211 

and palate. Salivary calculi, consisting chiefly of calcium 
carbonate and phosphate, cemented with organic matter, are 
occasionally deposited in the salivary ducts. The tartar 
deposited on the teeth has essentially the same composition. 
These calcium salts are held in solution in the saliva by 
carbonic acid. On exposure to the air this passes off and 
the salts are deposited. The amount of saliva secreted in 
twenty=four hours is 1,400 to 1,500 c. c. (21$ to 23 grs.). 
The flow is increased after meals and by pilocarpin. The 
ferment or enzyme present is known as ptyalin, and possesses 
a diastatic action, converting starch into dextrin, then into 
iso=maltose and maltose. Eventually glucose forms, proba- 
bly the result of the action of an inverting ferment. A mic- 
roscopic examination will show epithelial cells from the 
mouth and tongue, as well as salivary and mucous corpuscles. 
Bacteria are always present. 

Gastric Juice is the combined product of the cardiac and 
pyloric glands of the stomach, and normally possesses an in- 
tense acid reaction, due to the presence of free hydrochloric 
acid. It is a watery fluid which filters easily and is not 
slimy. The contents of the stomach may include (a) mic- 
roscopical constituents, as remains of food, squamous epith- 
elial cells, blood=cells, various micro=organisms, sarcins, 
yeasts, etc.; (l>) soluble chemical constituents, as proteolytic 
enzyme, pepsin, rennih, hydrochloric acid, organic acids, acid 
phosphates, peptones, etc. The secretion from the. pyloric end 
of the stomach is said to be alkalin and to contain only pep- 
sin, while that from the cardiac end is intensely acid. The 
hydrochloric acid is derived from the sodium chlorid in the 
blood, being freed by action of the carbon dioxid, also found 
in the blood. Hydrochloric acid is an effective germicide, 
but does not affect the spores. It also stops the diastatic 
action of ptyalin on starch. Salivary digestion of starch does 
not necessarily cease when the food reaches the stomach; nor 
does it follow that all bacteria are destroyed in the stomach. 
Indeed, the starch conversion will continue until free hydro- 



212 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

chloric acid has permeated the entire food=mass in the 
stomach. If the mass of food is large, or the amount of 
hydrochloric acid secreted small, this diastatic action may 
continue for a considerable time after the food reaches the 
stomach. With the decrease in the quantity of free acid, its 
inhibiting effect on bacteria is diminished, and, in conse- 
quence, the bacterial growth in the stomach may become 
enormously developed, resulting in various fermentations. 
The longer food remains in the stomach because of sluggish 
action, the more marked will such decomposition be. If a 
sufficient interval is allowed between meals the stomach will 
undoubtedly disinfect itself. 

Pancreatic Juice is a clear, thick, alkaline fluid, rich in 
solids, and possesses very active ferment properties. It con- 
tains at least three distinct ferments, besides albumin, leucin, 
fats, soap, and salts. These solid constituents make up about 
10 per cent, of the secretion. Ingestion of food stimulates the 
flow; during starvation there is no secretion. Steapsin, one 
of the ferments, acts upon the neutral fat taken into the body 
with the food, and splits it up, by hydration or saponifica- 
tion, into free fatty acids and glycerin. However, only a 
small portion of the fat undergoes the change. The free acids 
combine with sodium carbonate to form soaps, and the re- 
sulting soap solution readily emulsifies the remaining neut- 
ral fat, bringing it into a finely divided condition, suitable 
for absorption. A considerable portion may at times be de- 
composed into free fatty acids, through the activity of bac- 
teria. The free fatty acids are not absorbed, as such, but 
appear to be regenerated in the intestinal walls by synthesis, 
into neutral fat. The cleavage of fats by the pancreatic 
ferment, and the subsequent emulsification, is necessary to 
the proper absorption of fat. The second ferment, amylop- 
sin, resembling that of ptyalin of the saliva, acts on starches, 
splitting up the bodies into dextrin and iso=maltose. The 
third ferment, trypsin, is proteolytic in its action. This 
ferment does not exist as such in the substance of the gland, 
but is represented by a parent=substance, trypsinogen, which 



THE BODY: ITS COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY 213 

is most abundant in from fourteen to eighteen hours after a 
meal. This zymogen, during the process of secretion, is con- 
verted into trypsin. Trypsin, in its purest condition, gives 
proteid reactions, is soluble in water, and insoluble in alcohol 
and glycerin. 

Bile is a mixture of the secretion of liver cells and of mucin 
derived from the cells lining the gall-bladder and duct. It is 
a thick, tenacious fluid, is yellowish, sometimes greenish ; is 
alkalin in reaction; is of a bitter taste; and does not coagu- 
late on heating. In health, about one pint is secreted every 
twenty=four hours. The secretion is continuous, but varia- 
ble. A slight obstruction of the bile=duct may lead to reten- 
tion of the bile; as a result, the bile=constituents are ab- 
sorbed, and may appear in the urine. Bile contains, as 
characteristic constituents, certain salts of bile=acids, bile= 
pigments, and small quantities of lecithin, cholesterin, soap, 
neutral fat, urea, and salts of calcium, magnesium, iron, and 
copper. The bile=acids are usually present as sodium salts. 
A number of bile=pigments are known, but, usually, in nor- 
mal bile, there are but two, bilirubin and biliverdin. The 
former is of a reddish=yellow color ; the later greenish. The 
color of bile is due to the predominance of one or the other. 
The bile=pigments are soluble in alkalis, insoluble in acids, 
and yield insoluble compounds with calcium and other 
metals. Bilirubin is slightly soluble in alcohol and in ether, 
and readily soluble in chloroform. Biliverdin is insoluble 
in chloroform. Bilirubin, in addition to being in the bile, 
is met with in bile=stones as a calcium compound, in old 
blood extravasations (hematoidin), and in urine and tissues 
during jaundice. 

Blood is usually a dark-red, thick, opaque fluid. It con- 
sists of red and white corpuscles and plates or crystals sus- 
pended in the liquid portion, the plasma. The solid portion 
may constitute nearly one-half the weight of the blood. The 
blood of the adult man contains in each milimeter about 
5,000,000 red and 7,500 white blood corpuscles, and 250,000 



214 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

blood plates. That of woman contains about 500,000 red 
corpuscles less. The blood possesses a distinct alkaline re- 
action, due, chiefly, to sodium carbonate. This alkalinity is 
decreased considerably in febrile conditions, diabetic coma, 
cancer, and after excessive muscular exercise, due to the in- 
creased production of acids, which result in the increased 
disintegration of protein tissues. The average diameter of 
the red corpuscles in the blood of man is about 1/3200 of an 
inch. The opacity of the blood is due to the suspended blood- 
corpuscles. The white corpuscles, or leucocytes, differ con- 
siderably in form and size, being larger and lighter than the 
red cells, and contain from one to four nuclei each. They 
show ameboid movement. The leucocytes consist largely of 
the complex proteid, neucleo=histon. The blood=plates are 
supposed by some to be derived from nuclei, and hence con- 
sist chiefly of nuclein. The plasma contains about 8.2 per 
cent, of solids; of this amount, 6.9 per cent, is due to pro- 
teins and 0.87 per cent, to inorganic constituents, such as 
chlorids, phosphates, and carbonates. There are three al- 
buminous substances contained in the plasma : fibrinogen, 
serum globulin, and serum albumin. Fibrinogen resembles 
the globulins, but is distinguished from serum globulin, 
especially, by its behavior with sodium chlorin, which precip- 
itates it on semi-saturation. Fibrinogen solutions coagulate 
when heated to 56° or less. The globulins, fibrinogen, and 
serum globulin make up most of the proteids of the blood. 
Serum albumin, which is present in plasma, and possibly 
other proteins of the blood, is made by the epithelial cells 
of the intestine out of the pepton prepared by the digestive 
fluids. The pepton made in the stomach and intestine is not 
absorbed and carried through the body as such, but is re- 
generated, synthesized, to serum albumin by the cells of the 
intestinal wall. The blood coming from the intestines does 
not contain pepton or albumose in solution. Coagulation of 
the blood takes place in a few minutes after blood is removed 
from the bodv, when it clots, forming a solid jelly, consisting 



THE BODY: ITS COMPOSITION AND CHEMISTRY 215 

of a network of fibrin threads, containing in its meshes the 
blood=corpuscles and the fluid part of the blood. Finally the 
clot shrinks, and a light=yellow fluid, called blood=serum, is 
squeezed out. If the blood, as soon as drawn from the body, 
is rapidly stirred with the hand, or whipped with a bundle 
of sticks, glass rods, or wire, the solid clot will not form, but, 
instead, the hand or stirring rods will be covered with shreds 
of fibrin or blood=fiber. The resulting fluid is called defi- 
brinated blood; it is blood=serum containing in suspension 
blood=corpuscles. The fibrin shreds, when washed, are pure 
white, and resemble, in many respects, the white of an egg. 
Coagulation, therefore, implies the formation of fibrin. This 
change is brought about by the action of the fibrin ferment 
derived from leucocytes, or serum globulin and fibrinogen. 
The fibrin ferment is apparently a globulin, not a nuclein. 
It is not present in fresh arterial blood, nor is it present in 
pepton or histon plasma. 

Milk is a secretion of the mammary gland, and is composed 
of water, casein, globulin, albumin, fats, milk=sugar, and in- 
organic salts. Its color is due, in part, to suspended fat 
globules, and in part to the casein held in solution by calcium 
phosphate. The reaction of milk is usually alkaline or am- 
photeric, but may be acid. Casein is a complex proteid be- 
longing to the nuclo-albumins. It is insoluble in water, but 
is dissolved readily in the presence of alkalis. Casein is 
derived, apparently, from a nucleo=proteid contained in the 
protoplasm of the cells of the gland. The globulin of milk, 
or lacto-globulin, is probably identical with serum globulin. 
The fat is present as an emulsion of fat globules. The sugar 
present in milk, lactose, is a specific product of the gland= 
cells and is not directly derived from the blood. 

Urea, the chief solid constituent of urine, is the principal 
form in which waste nitrogen leaves the body. The nitrogen 
present in the complex proteins, derived from the food and 
present in the fluids and cells of the body, when disintegra- 



216 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

tion results, passes through a series of successive cleavage 
products, aud eventually appears in the urine as urea, or 
as other waste nitrogenous substances. The original source 
of urea is the protein matter of the foods and tissues. The 
total nitrogen in the food is eliminated by the kidneys with- 
in twenty=four hours as waste nitrogen. Some of this waste 
nitrogen naturally results from the destruction of the tissues 
of the body, and of hemoglobin. The remainder probably 
results from the direct breaking down of circulating pro- 
teins. The urea, which is made in the liver, is carried by 
the blood to the kidneys, and there excreted. Since the kid- 
ney is the organ eliminating urea, it follows that in struc- 
tural disease of the kidneys such elimination will be de- 
creased or even suppressed. In that case, urea accumulates 
in the blood and tissues, and is partially excreted by the 
sweat, vomit, and intestinal discharges. Poisoning will fol- 
low either non-elimination of urea and other waste products, 
or non-formation of urea. Ammonia is always found in 
normal urine, not free, but combined as a salt, — chlorid, 
sulphate, or phosphate. « 



PART SECOND. 



MODERN AND PRESENT EMBALMING. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



ANCIENT EMBALMING. 



We are ho accustomed to plume ourselves upon the achieve- 
ments of this ( nineteenth) century, its discoveries and in- 
ventions, and its progress in the arts and sciences, that we 
are often prone to forget its indebtedness to all preceding- 
ages and generations. St. Paul, the great and learned 
apostle, declared that he was "debtor both to the Greeks and 
to the Barbarians; both to the wise, and to the unwise." 
So, likewise, are we of to-day — 

"We the heirs of all the ages, in the foremost files of time." 

For every age is the inheritor of the wisdom conveyed 
through the successes and failures of all its predessors, and 
is enabled, by the proper application of such wisdom, to 
further its own advancement. Forward is the watchword 
of Time. The earth does not 

"Stand at gaze like Joshua's moon in Ajalon." 

Nevertheless, its inhabitants, in their accomplishments, 
crept before they walked, and walked before they began their 
grand triumphal march toward great material and intel- 
lectual victories — for which march, in these latter days, the 
music of the spheres themselves seems furnishing the lively 
quickstep. 

In the pride that swells our hearts at the knowledge that 
we "live and move and have our being," in this age par ex- 
cellence of all the. eons yet emanated from the Deity, this 
reflection may beget within us a seemly humility. The 
present age — that contributes to the world such triumphs of 
the electrician, bacteriologist, and general scientist, to say 
nothing of corresponding conquests in numberless other fields 
and pursuits ; that, having found the X-ray, proposes to sub- 

218 






ANCIENT EMBALMING 219 

jugate, therewith, the microbe; that sets no limit to its am- 
bition, and whose bright lexicon contains no such word as 
"impossible" — has accomplished only that which its fore- 
runners have rendered feasible, when it ceases to speak of 
"first principles" and presses on to perfection. 

In nothing is this tendency to press on toward perfection 
more clearly demonstrated than in the progress which has 
been made in the art of embalming. What was, in ancient 
times, a labor attended with much ceremony, delay, and 
many drawbacks, becomes, to the thoroughly=equipped scien- 
tific operator of to-day, a simple task, accomplished in a brief 
space of time, by the use of a comparatively small quantity 
of preservative fluid. 

The embalmer does not enter our houses heavily laden with 
hundred=pound weights of myrrh, aloes, saffron, and cassia. 
He is not burdened with opobalsam — the resinous exudation 
called balm of Gilead, yielded by terebinthine evergreens of 
Asia and Africa — ; his assistants are not loaded down with 
gypsum, or bitumen. 

Among the distinctive characteristics of the work of our 
times are skilled scientific methods and simplicity of detail, 
which enable us effectually to discard a majority of the cum- 
bersome requisites indispensable to the laborers of bygone 
ages. 

Still, to the forerunner in any field of meritorious perform- 
ance, is due, of right, that acknowledgment belonging to the 
pioneer, however convincingly he who comes afterward may 
be able to say, "And yet show I unto you a more excellent 
way." 

EGYPTIAN METHODS. 
It seems peculiarly appropriate that Egypt — that land of 
mystery — should have been the first, so far as we have knowl- 
edge, to embalm the human body after death. Egypt, with its 
hieroglyphed, cartouched monoliths, mighty pyramidal stair- 
ways ascending toward the sky, and grove-shaded temples ap- 
proached through massive gateways and avenues of sphinxes! 



220 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Egypt, the land of beauty, bearing olives, dates, and citron 
trees; glowing pomegranates and ruddy=hued guavas; peren- 
nially green acacias, papyrus reeds that fringe the stream, and 
gardens sweet with rose and heliotrope! 

Reasons for Embalming. — The men who reared Luxor 
and graved pictoral history on Karnac's walls and lofty pil- 
lars, with so lasting, jet so delicate a stroke, must have been 
beings deeply imbued with sentiments and sympathies of a 
religions nature. To these feelings, doubtless, may be 
ascribed their reason for making such an elaborate disposi- 
tion of the remains of their departed friends. Other assump- 
tions as to the causes from which this custom took its rise 
have been made, but their credibility fades into insignificance 
when compared with this. One of these other assumptions 
is based on the assertion that sanitary expediency was the 
prompting motive; another, that the periodical overflow of 
the Xile furnished hindrances to the ordinary form of inter- 
ment. Still, we cannot but be firmly persuaded that a deep- 
ly=rooted religious belief or superstition promoted this en- 
deavor, their aim being to make the best possible provision 
lying in their power to secure a happy future for those whom 
they loved. 

Herodotus, the Greek historian, tells us the Egyptians were 
the first people to believe that the soul is immortal. In addi- 
tion to this faith they held that this immortal tenant of the 
human frame would never fully abandon its place of habi- 
tation so long as the body withstood the ravages of corrup- 
tion. Embalming but emphasized their idea that if the body 
be kept free from putrefaction, its immaterial tenant would 
revisit it from time to time, and return to take up its abode 
once more at the expiration of a certain period. It was a 
tenet of their faith, that, after death, the soul was compelled 
to make the circuit of all forms of animal life — bird, beast, 
and reptile — , until it had dwelt for a time in each of them. 
It then passed through earth, air, and water, and after the 
"circle of necessity" had been completed, returned to its long= 



ANCIENT EMBALMING 221 

empty tenement and entered in. This journey could not be 
traveled under 3,000 years, and the embalmer's aim was so 
to preserve the body, that, when such a period should have 
elapsed, the home-coming soul would find all things in readi- 
ness for its reception. 

The lengthy and painstaking preparation bestowed upon 
the body in the embalming of that day speaks well for the 
estimate of worth the Egyptians placed on the immortal part 
of man. 

Embalmers of the Medical Fraternity.— It is probable 
that the embalmers of that period belonged to the medical 
fraternity, as we read in the fiftieth chapter of Genesis that 
"the phj^sicians embalmed Israel," the father of Joseph, who 
died in Egypt. Some writers have objected to this statement 
on the ground that embalmers were, according to Herodotus, 
simply persons appointed by law "to exercise this art as their 
peculiar business." Also, it is so claimed, for the reason that 
such persons were drawn from the ranks of the priesthood. 
It is easy to reconcile these objections with the Bible state- 
ment when it is remembered that Egyptian physicians were 
a body of specialists. "So wisely," says Herodotus, "was 
medicine managed by them, that no doctor was permitted to 
practice any but his own peculiar branch." The embalmer, 
even though from priestly ranks, originally must have been 
compelled to acquire some knowledge of the action of drugs 
and essences employed in the embalming of the body, upon 
its organs and tissues. Knowledge of this character may 
have given him a right to the title of "physician," and license 
to practice in "his own peculiar branch," as an embalmer. 

Selecting the Pattern. — Immediately after death the 
body of the deceased was brought to the embalmers by his 
friends. To these friends were displayed wooden models and 
painted representations of different forms in which mummies 
were, so to speak, "done np." A favorite style was that of 
likeness to the god Osiris, who, in addition to other peculiari- 



222 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 



1, sarcophagus ; 2, 
outer mummy-case ; 
3, inner case, with 
cover elevated, show- 
ing mummy. 



Fig. 36. Mummy, Mummy- 
and Sarcophagus, 



ties, had the beard cut and arranged in a form belonging- ex- 
clusively to the gods. All who had lived virtuous lives and 
were accounted worthy of being finally 
reunited after death with the god from 
whom they emanated, were entitled to 
have their bodies preserved in this like- 
ness and to be called by this holy name. 

Removing the Brain.— When the pat- 
tern was finally agreed upon, and the 
price to be paid for the service about to be 
rendered determined, the friends with- 
drew, leaving the subject in the enibalmers' hands. Her- 
odotus says the work was begun by removing the brain, 
through the nostrils, with a curved iron hook or probe, and 
that the cavity from which the brain was extracted was then 
cleansed by an injection of certain astringent drugs with 
which the skull was filled. 

Diodorus does not mention, in his account of the process, 
the extraction of the brain in this manner; and this state- 
ment has met with dissent, on the ground that extraction of 
the brain through the nostrils would be an exceedingly diffi- 
cult, if not absolutely impossible, undertaking. That even if it 
could have been done, the nose must by this means necessarily 
have been mutilated and the likeness destroyed ; whereas we are 
informed that "so perfectly were all the members preserved, 
that even the hairs of the eyelids and eyebrows remained un- 
disturbed, and the whole appearance of the person was so 
unaltered that i-very feature might be recognized." Gryphius 
suggests that the brain might have been extracted through a 
foramen, or orifice, in the back part of the head, near the up- 
per vertebra of the neck. But, as heads indicating this dis- 
position of the brain have not generally been found in mum- 
mies, it gives room for still another theory — that of the in- 
jection of cedar oil, or some similar tissue-destroying sub- 
stance, through the nostrils or ear-passages, by way of an 
artificial canal prepared for it, and the subsequent coming 




ANCIENT EMBALMING 223 

away of the brain in a state of dissolution. The injection of 
spirituous or aromatic wines could then have acted as cleans- 
ing agents, followed by the final injection of melted bitumen, 
or sweet balsam, which becomes a solid mass, filling the skull, 
when cold. Many mummy skulls have been found to be full 
of earthy matter, in place of either of the above, and some to 
have been prepared with wax and tannin. 

While the care of the head was in process in the hands of 
one embalmer, other necessary features of the work were as- 
signed his assistants. 

Incising the Body. — Diodorus says: "First, one, who is 
denominated the scribe, marks upon the left side of the body, 
as it lies upon the ground, the extent of the incision which is 
to be made; then another, who is called paraschistes (the dis- 
sector), cuts open as much of the flesh as the law permits, 
with an Ethiopian stone, and immediately runs awa} 7 , pur- 
sued by those who are present, throwing stones at him, amid 
bitter execrations, as if to cast upon him all the odium of 
this necessary act." 

The stone thus made use of was undoubtedly in the form of 
a flint knife. It may have been called Ethiopian on account 
of its black color. Stones used in Egypt for the purpose of 
cutting were invariably of flint, and were commonly employed 
by the people. The stone knives found in excavations and 
tombs, at Thebes and elsewhere, and exhibited in museums of 
Europe, are of two kinds. One is broad and flat, usually set 
into some kind of a handle; the other, which is without doubt 
the knife of the embalmer, is short, pointed, and of razor-like 
sharpness. 

The pursuit of the paraschistes already mentioned was 
probably a religious formality, the people having.no real de- 
sire to harm him, and he entertaining no actual fear. It in- 
dicates, however, that the delicate sentiment which leads 
modern embalmers to practice their art without spectators, 
was utterly lacking among these ancient practitioners. 



224 CHAM PI OX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

In contradistinction to the odium cast upon this knife-user, 
was the high esteem in which the embalmers themselves were 
held. They were associates of the priests, and were permitted 
free access to the temple, as sacred persons. 

Treatment of the Viscera. — Through the hole cut in the 
side of the dead, the lungs, liver, stomach, spleen, and all the 
organs, except the heart and the kidneys, were removed from 
the body. The heart may have been left as the principal 
organ and source of vital heat, but it is a matter of uncertain- 
ty why the kidneys were not removed. Perhaps some religi- 
ous superstition determined their being left. The body was 
likewise divested of the entrails. These, and the cavity from 
which the organs had been removed, were then washed with 
Phoenician or palm wine and other binding drugs. The en- 
trails were afterward returned to the body, if not otherwise 
disposed of, which was sometimes the case, through the sacred 
eye of Osiris, which was placed above the incision. 

Ingredients Used. — This being done, the body was repeat- 
edly anointed with oil of cedar. Myrrh, cassia, aloes, and 
saffron — all fragrant gums and odoriferous spices, with the 
exception of frankincense, which was consecrated to the wor- 
ship of their gods — were introduced into the cavity, and the 
body was sewn up. 

After a certain time, the body was swathed in lawn fillets, 
which were glued together with a kind of very thin gum, and 
then crusted over with the most exquisite perfumes. 

Some historians make no reference to any further preser- 
vative process between the use of the aromatics and the bind- 
ing up of the body in anointed and perfumed linen ; but, from 
others we learn that after the application of the drugs and 
spices and the sewing up of the ventral incision, came the 
salting of the body. It was kept in natron or anatron, known 
to chemistry as potassium nitrate, or salt of niter, and to 
people in general as saltpeter, an antiseptic used in the cur- 
ing of meat, for seventy or seventy=two days. This was an 



ANCIENT EMBALMING 225 

arbitrary period to which the embalmers were strictly con- 
fined. Upon the expiration of these days, the body was 
washed and wrapped in linen bandages dipped in oil of 
myrrh. 

Diodorus, who speaks of the actual face of the body being- 
left exposed after restoration, in cartonnage and case, to rel- 
atives and friends, is contradicted by Herodotus, who says 
the features and the whole body were enveloped in wrap- 
pings and entirely concealed. 

The head was swathed in cloths made fast with flaxen fila- 
ments, sometimes of a delicate color. If the body were that 
of a Pharaoh, or other sacred person, under these filaments 
were sometimes pushed the stems of lotus buds. The lotus, 
a name applying to several kinds of water lilies, was a 
favorite and a sacred flower in Egypt, and was used in religi- 
ous ceremonies. It appears in hieroglyphics on Egyptian 
monuments, and entered into their works of art. 

Honorable women of high rank were kept for three or four 
days after death before being delivered to the embalmers. 

The Mummy Wrappings. — In passing, it may be inter- 
esting to some to learn the exact nature of the mummy wrap- 
pings. The words byssus and linon, used in describing them, 
indicate that they were linen, not cotton, although cotton 
cloth was manufactured in Egypt, and dresses of that mater- 
ial were commonly worn. Sometimes, however, these cere- 
cloths were of finely-wrought silk, and have been known to 
be over one thousand yards in length. 

The above was one of the most magnificent styles of em- 
balming, and was used for persons of quality. Its expense 
amounted to £250, or over $1,200 in American money. 

The Cartonnage. — When the usual routine work of em- 
balming had been finished, the mummy was enclosed in a first 
case, called a cartonnage, or mummy=case. It consisted of 
many layers of linen, hardened together by a kind of glue, 
and coated outside with stucco. It was cut according to exact 



l'lm; 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



measurements of the mummied body, and made to conform 
exactly to its shape, by being fitted upon it when damp, and 
retaining the bent lines imparted in this way, while in the 




Fig. 37. Inner and Outer Mummy-Cases. 

process of drying. It was richly ornamented with a network 
of bugles, beads, etc., and the pictured face directly over the 
mummy's face was sometimes overlaid with gold leaf. Three 



ANCIENT EMBALMING 227 

or four other cases, likewise ornamented and gilded, were 
superimposed upon this cartonnage, and the whole was then 
inclosed in a sarcophagus of wood or stone, embellished with 
painting or sculpture. These sarcophagi were often of cedar 
or a rot-proof wood called gimmis wood. They were of many 
different shapes, and the shapes of those fashioned in wood 
differed from those of stone. 

Treatment of the Intestines. — The intestines of all per- 
sons embalmed by the most expensive process — for none of 
the first quality were embalmed without the removal of the 
intestines — were deposited in four vases of alabaster, hard 
stone, glass, porcelain, or bronze, and these were placed with 
them in the sarcophagus or tomb. These vases were various- 
ly ornamented, usually with the heads of the genii of Amenti. 
Herodotus does not inform us with reference to what became 
of the intestines of persons not embalmed as above mentioned. 
Porphyry says they were thrown into the river. Plutarch 
gives a similar account and explains the reason for such 
disposal. He speaks of them as being the cause of all the 
faults committed by man. The intestines were embalmed in 
spices, and a separate portion allotted to each of the four 
vases. In one was contained the large intestine in company 
with the stomach. In another the small intestine was placed. 
The lungs and heart, and the gall-bladder and liver, were 
among the contents of the remaining two. 

The most costly of these vases were of oriental alabaster, 
from ten to twenty inches high, and about one-third of the 
height in diameter. Each bore an inscription embracing the 
name of the god the likeness of whose head it bore. 

In those instances where the intestines were returned *to 
the body, images in wax of these four genii of Amenti were 
put into the cavity with them, as guardians of those parts 
subject to their influence. Sometimes, instead, a metal plate, 
usually of lead, bearing their images, was substituted. The 
sacred eye of Osiris was placed over the incision, whether the 
entrails were returned to the body or placed in the vases. 



228 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Sometimes in the higher grade of embalming, the skin of 
the face itself, as well as, or instead of, the semblance on the 
cartonnage, was covered with a mask of gold leaf. In other 
instances, the entire body was so overlaid; sometimes merely 
the eyelids or the finger nails alone. 

Classes of Embalming. — Egyptian embalming may be 
classified under two general heads: those bodies embalmed 
witli the ventral incision; and those- without. Under those 
embalmed with the incision, are classed bodies prepared with 
balsamic matter and those preserved by natron only. Bal- 
samic embalming was performed with a mixture of resin and 
aromatics, or asphaltum and pare bitumen. The first named 
of these bodies — those filled with resinous matter — became 
of an olive color, the skin dry and flexible, as if tanned, and 
adhering to the bones. The features remained as in life. 
The features of those preserved in natron — simply salted and 
dried — were completely destroyed, and they became unrecog- 
nizable. The hair also fell out and the head became bald. 
But little care was exercised in the bandaging, which scarce- 
ly separated the bodies from the earth in which they were 
interred. 

An Intermediate Grade of embalming, between the most 
costly and the revolting form above indicated, was the inject- 
ing of cedar oil into the abdomen, through the fundament, by 
means of a syringe. This was done without making a vent- 
ral incision, or removing the bowels. 

Cedar oil, which possesses heating and drying qualities, 
also corroded and consumed the substance of the bowels on 
which it acted. It consumed as well the surplus humidity of 
the body which brings about putrefaction. Care was taken 
to prevent this oil's escape while the body was kept in natron 
during the appointed time. It was then drawn off, bringing 
with it the bowels upon which it had acted destructively, in 
a state of dissolution. The natron dissolved the flesh and 
caused the skin to cling to the bones. The body was then 



ANCIENT EMBALMING 229 

restored to the friends without further attention. This man- 
ner of preserving the dead cost about £60, or $300. 

When the dead left no estate and the friends were very 
poor, the body was simply cleansed with an injection of 
syrmcea, and afterward kept salted in the customary manner 
for the usual seventy days. 

If a stranger were found dead in Egypt, the law required 
that he should be mummified in the most magnificent and 
expensive manner. 

When Embalming Ceased. — it is not positively known 
when the custom of embalming ceased in Egypt. It has been 
suggested that it may have been when that land became a 
Roman province. It is probable that after this time embalm- 
ing became less universal and gradually fell into disuse, 
rather than that it was suddenly abandoned. After the 
sixth century, interest in this disposition of human bodies 
declined so sensibly that only a few of the more studious and 
scholarly were informed of the real secret of the art. 

A description of Egyptian tombs, with their artistic adorn- 
ments, the mummy pits with which Egypt is honeycombed, 
and the funeral customs there observed, would be of interest 
to the curious inquirer concerning Egyptian antiquities, but 
such description would form a lengthy article of itself, and 
docs not, strictly speaking, come within the province of this 
article. 

JEWISH METHODS. 
The Jews adopted the custom of embalming to some ex- 
tent, the "manner of the Jews" being to employ "linen clothes 
with the spices" in winding the body. When Lazarus was 
resurrected by the Savior's command, "Come forth," he ap- 
peared at the aperture of the tomb, "bound hand and foot 
with grave clothes, and his face was bound about with a 
napkin." But by whatever process his body may have been 
prepared for the sepulture, it is evident that his sister Martha 
did not believe it sufficient to preserve it effectually and with 



230 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

thoroughness; for, when Jesus had said to the bystanders, 
"Take ye away the stone'' that obstructed the mouth of the 
cave, she had protested, declaring, "Lord, by this time he 
stinketh, for he hath been dead four days." So hampered 
was Lazarus by the wrappings in which he was swathed, that, 
though life had returned to him, he was unable to make use 
of his renewed vitality until the authoritive mandate, "Loose 
him, and let him go," had been obeyed. 

Like Those Of Egypt.— Jacob, who died in Egypt, was 
probably embalmed after the Egyptians' most expensive and 
elaborate manner, for Joseph, who "commanded the physi- 
cians to embalm his father," was high in the royal favor — 
"the man whom the king- delighted to honor." When Joseph 
went up to the land of Canaan to bury his father, "with him 
went up all the servants of Pharoah, the elders of his house, 
and all the elders of the land of Egypt." 

Probably this same form of embalming was used with 
Joseph, when "he died being an hundred and ten years old; 
and the}' embalmed him and he was put in a coffin in Egypt." 
Before dying, he "took an oath of the children of Israel say- 
ing, God will surely visit yon, and ye shall carry up my bones 
from hence." 

Wherever the body of Joseph was kept, whether in an 
apartment of a house, according to the usage of some of the 
Egyptians, or in a tomb prepared for it, this oath was strictly 
fulfilled by the descendants of those who made it, nearly two 
centuries afterward, when the Israelites returned to their 
own land. 

This custom, here referred to, of keeping the mummied 
body, for a long time, in a place set apart for it in the former 
home of the person deceased, was sometimes permitted; but 
some specious reason was usually assigned in excuse for it, 
as it was considered a very grave thing to deprive one entitled 
to it of the right of burial. Xo grief and shame could be more 
terrible to surviving friends than to have departed dear ones, 



ANCIENT EMBALMING 231 

by a verdict rendered after post=mortem judgment, which was 
common in Egypt, accounted unworthy of burial. 

Embalming the Poor. — The poor among the Jews, those 
known as the "common people," were embalmed with bitu- 
men, which was a cheap material, easily procured. It was 
a mineral pitch, found in large quantities on the shores of 
the Dead Sea, which for this reason was also called the 
Asphaltic Lake. This lake was located in Palestine, about 
one hundred miles from Damiata in Egypt, and the bitumen 
used by the Egyptians came from this place. The body and 
its envelopes were smeared with this substance "with more 
or less care and diligence." This bitumen, however, must 
have possessed considerable preservative power, as sepulchres 
have been opened in which thousands of bodies deposited in 
rows, one above another, without coffins, have been kept 
from decay for centuries, by its use. Coal tar, petroleum, 
and naphtha are of the same derivation. Mummies pre- 
pared by this substances are, of course, black, hard, and 
shining. The skin appears as if varnished. They are dry, 
heavy, and without odor. 

But the more usual form of embalming among the Jews, 
appears to have been made use of more to perfume the body 
and keep at a distance, as long as possible, the disagreeable 
odor which belongs to death, than with the expectation that 
it would, for any great length of time, ward off putrefaction. 
It was simply the binding of spices upon the limbs and body 
with the usual linen bandages. 

In the Time of Christ. — In this manner, at the near ap- 
proach of the Jewish Sabbath, which must not be defiled by 
the presence of the unburied victims of the law, Jesus, when 
taken down from the cross, where he had suffered for the 
sins of the whole world, was ministered unto by Joseph of 
Arimathea, a secret disciple, and Nicodemus, who "brought a 
mixture of myrrh and aloes, about an hundred=pound weight." 



232 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

week, came the faithful women who had loved and followed 
him, with spices and ointment they had prepared wherewith 
to anoint him, not knowing that, already, this loving service 
had been performed by the hand of pious affection. 

But even in this simple style, embalming was not, it ap- 
pears, a prevalent mode of disposing of the dead, among the 
.Tews. 

METHODS OF THE ROMANS AND OTHER NATIONS. 

Among the Romans. — The funeral rites of the Romans 
and many other nations embraced embalming in some form. 
The deceased, after being washed in hot water, sometimes 
varied with oil, every day for seven days, to revive him in 
ease he was simply in a condition of suspended animation, 
was "dressed and embalmed with the performance of a variety 
of singular ceremonies." After this his body was placed on 
a funeral pile and burnt. The ashes were then gathered in 
a vase or urn, and deposited in the tomb. 

The Babylonians made use of honey in anointing their 
dead, or immersed them in this viscid fluid. 

The Scythians immured the body in a coating of wax. 

The Ethiopians washed it over with a sort of plastering 
called parget. 

Among Persians, Assyrians, Etc.— Embalming was 
practiced also among the Persians, Assyrians, and many 
other ancient nations. 

The Greeks acquired the art through their conquests. 

The Guanchos, the original inhabitants of the Canary 
Tslands, probably obtained the custom of embalming their 
dead from the Atlanteans who inhabited the famous "lost 
Atlantis," an antediluvian island or continent, which, the 
ancients asserted, was overwhelmed and swallowed by the 
"great deep." These islanders coated the body with a liquid 
composed of a solution of resinous matter in an oil or volatile 
liquid — a sort of varnish — , after which they wrapped it in 
goat skin and placed it in a wooden case. 



ANCIENT EMBALMING 233 

ON THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE. 

Among Early Peruvians. — Without doubt, the aborig- 
ines of the Western Continent were familiar with the prac- 
tice of this art. The early Peruvians, we learn from accounts 
contained in Prescott's "Conquest of Peru," preserved the 
dead body of the royal Incas by some marvelous process 
which did not give evidence of foreign applications, and 
secreted them under mounds of earth and in the interiors of 
their temples. He presents an ancient picture of these em- 
balmed Peruvian monarchs sitting "natural as life, in the 
chairs of gold," in the temples of the sun, at Cuzco. They 
were clothed in their accustomed princely attire. The raven- 
black or silver-gray of the hair on their bowed heads was 
still unchanged, and their hands were crossed upon their 
bosoms in the grim dignity of death. 

The Aztecs, a highly civilized race, and one of the most 
interesting and powerful of the indigenous tribes of America, 
inhabiting the plateau of Anahuac, later known as Mexico, 
who were conquered by Cortez in 1519, and whose history 
has been traced back to the twelfth century, made careful 
preservation of the bodies of their dead, especially those who 
could claim royal descent. Aztec legends relate how, after 
the deluge, seven persons issued from the tomb to which their 
mummied bodies had been committed, and, in renewed exis- 
tence, repeopled the earth. 

North American Indians.— The art was not unknown 
among the early North American Indians. Mummies remark- 
ably well preserved have been found among the Flatheads, 
Dakotas, and Chinooks; and the Florida and Virginia Indians 
so preserved the bodies of their kings. Quite a number of 
good mummies have been found in Kentucky caves. 

In 1899, the well preserved mummy of a woman and child 
was found in a cave in the Yosemite Valley, which, on ac- 
count of its almost giant size (6 feet, S inches), and other 
characteristics, some authorities believe to be a relic of the 
lost tribe of the stone age, possibly antedating the Christian 
era 3, (MM) years. 



234 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

AMONG EARLY CHRISTIANS. 

The Early Christians, for a time, embalmed their dead, 
according' to those forms with which they were familiar in 
Palestine. No special reason, so far as we have been able to 
determine, has been given for their abandonment of this 
ceremony. It may be inferred that they feared, by its continu- 
ance, to cast discredit upon the power of God to call together 
the scattered dust of the body which had returned to its 
native element, and present it like unto Christ's "own glori- 
ous body" on the morning of the resurrection. But, if so, in 
this they erred. When the Creator stated to Adam, "For 
dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return," he put forth 
a simple statement of fact ; it was not the issuance of a com- 
mand. 

No word was ever spoken by Jesus indicating his disap- 
proval of attempts, with which, as a Jew, he was fully famil- 
iar, to preserve the body from decay after death. St. Paul, 
the greatest of the Christian apostles, inquired of the Corin- 
thians: "What! know ye not that your body is a temple of 
the Holy Ghost which is in you, which we have of God and 
ye are not your own?" Men preserve with care, in original 
grandeur and dignity, the palace where an earthly king has 
dwelt, and the inn where some mighty man has tarried for a 
night. Shall they let this temple of the "King of kings" be- 
come dishonored so long as preservation is a possibility? 
Shall they willingly give it over to decay and corruption? 

No; let us care for the body, made in God's own image, 
while we live; and let our friends, in recognition of the tem- 
ple it has been — of the soul and its Creator — give to it all the 
deference they can offer, when we shall have passed on to 
dwell in it no more, 

''Until the morning's happier light 

Its glory shall restore, 
And eyelids that are sealed in death 

Shall wake to close no more." 



CHAPTER XV. 



MODERN EMBALMING. 



Great progress has been made in embalming, especially 
during the present (nineteenth) century, and earlier methods 
Lave given way to more modern and enlightened ones. The 
beginning of these modernized methods was made as early as 
the seventeenth century, as the following account will show. 
TVhiek one of the early modern embalmers justly merits the 
title of father of the present system matters but little, for 
like every form of advancement, it has had growth and devel- 
opment, and the methods of none of these forerunners have 
survived, at least in this country; only their investigations led 
into new channels, resulting ultimately in the prevailing 
methods. 

The processes explained in this chapter are exclusively 
European. 

Dr. Frederic Ruysch, who occupied the chair of anatomy 
at Amsterdam, Holland, during the closing third of the seven- 
teenth, and early years of the eighteenth, century (1665- 
1717), was probably the first to practice a successful system 
of arterial injection, which, however, he used only in prepar- 
ing specimens for his anatomical work. He did not stop with 
a simple injection of the arteries, but, after permitting the 
body to remain for some hours to allow a diffusion of the fluid 
through the structures, he proceeded to lay open the body as 
in making a post=mortem examination. The viscera of the 
chest and abdomen were removed, and the fluid in them 
sponged out. The organs were then steeped in spirits of 
wine, replaced, and covered with a preservative solution. He 
brought his method of preserving dead bodies to such extreme 

235 



236 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

perfection that his specimens were the wonder of his gener- 
ation, and indeed of later ones. Peter the Great, who was 
among the distinguished personages to inspect his work, pos- 
sibly paid the highest compliment to his art by kissing the 
lifelike lips of a child preserved by the great anatomist, with- 
out at first discovering the fact that the lips were those of the 
dead. Dr. Ruysch's method is said to have preserved the 
natural color of the body, as well as the form and suppleness 
of the limbs. He left behind him at his death a large assori- 
ment of injected portions of the human body, but no specimen 
of the body entire. Peter the Great secured a large number 
of these specimens, which he carried to St. Petersburg. 
Whether or not the Uuyschian method was as perfect as 
claimed for it, or whether some of the statements concerning 
it should be largely discounted, the brilliant anatomist was 
the first known arterial injector, as well as one of the most 
skillful of any age. However, he neglected to take the world, 
or other scientists, into his confidence; hence, but little, if 
anything, is now known as to the chemicals used by him, or 
the manner of their injection. His discoveries were, conse- 
quently, lost to science. For this reason, others, whose meth- 
ods were published to the world, have been considered by 
many as better entitled to the honor naturally accruing from 
a great discovery. 

Dr. William Hunter, an eminent Scottish physician, anat- 
omist, and physiologist of the eighteenth century (1718- 
1783), is given the credit by many of being the original in- 
ventor of the injection method. Unlike Dr. Kuysch he pub- 
lished his plan of injection in minute detail. The artery usu- 
ally selected by him was the femoral. His solution was com- 
posed of oil of turpentine, live pints; Venice turpentine, one 
pint; oil of lavender, two fluid ounces; oil of rosemary, two 
fluid ounces; and vermillion. This was forced into the vessel 
until it reached over the whole body, giving the skin a general 
reddish appearance. As in Dr. Ruysch's method, complete 
diffusion of the fluid, through the minute vessels of the body, 



MODERN EMBALMING 237 

was secured by leaving the body untouched for a time. The 
body was then opened, the thoracic and abdominal organs 
were removed, emptied, and cleaned, their vessels injected 
with the fluid, and the organs steeped in camphorated spirits 
of wine. The cavities were washed with the camphor- 
ated spirits, the viscera were replaced, and the intervening- 
spaces were filled with a powder composed of camphor, rosin, 
and niter. This powder was also placed in the mouth, nos- 
trils, and other external cavities, and the body was rubbed 
over with essential oils of rosemary and lavender. The final 
operation consisted in placing the body thus prepared in a 
coffin upon a bed of dry plaster of Paris, put there to extract 
all moisture from the body. The coffin was then closed for 
four years, when it was opened. In case desication had not been 
complete by this time, another bed of the plaster was added. 

John Hunter (1728-1793), a younger brother of William, 
was but little less renowned along the same lines, and also 
helped greatly to advance the science of embalming, devoting 
much attention to experiments with various preparations. 

Some of the most perfect specimens of modern embalming 
to be seen to-day are Hunterian, and are found in the museum 
of the Royal College of Surgeons, London. One is the body of 
the wife of the eccentric Martin Van Butchell, preserved, 
some authorities say, by Dr. John Hunter, by the injection of 
camphorated spirits of wine, etc., into the arteries and veins. 
Other, and probably more creditable, authorities ascribe the 
work of preservation to the older brother, and declare that 
the method used was the same as the one so fully outlined 
above. Another body preserved in this museum was that of a 
young woman, who died about 1780, in the Lock Hospital, of 
consumption. 

The Hunterian Method was practiced with or without 
modification by many succeeding British anatomists. Dr. 
Matthew Baillic, instead of removing the intestines or other 
viscera, injected the preserving fluid into the stomach, lungs, 
and reel inn, after having made a complete injection of the 



238 CHAM PI OX TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

arterial system. Dr. Sheldon used as his preservative fluid 
camphor dissolved in spirits, in the proportion of one ounce 
of camphor to six of spirits. He removed the viscera, and 
coated them and the visceral cavities with tar, enveloping the 
body with a tarred sheet. His method is said to have been 
successful. Joshua Brooks, the last of the great English 
anatomists having a distinctive school of anatomy of his own, 
practiced the Hunterian method with but slight if any alter- 
ation. 

M. Boudet's Process was a modification of the Egyptian, 
he being one of the last to follow ancient methods, as well as 
the first to use corrosive sublimate as a preservative. He em- 
balmed with tan, salt, asphalt, Peruvian bark, camphor, cin- 
namon, and other aromatics, aud corrosive sublimate. He 
also completely enveloped the body in bandages, varnish being- 
coated over the body and cavities and outer bandage. 

M. Franchini's Process consisted of injecting the arteries 
through the common carotid artery with a solution consisting 
of eight decigrams of arsenious acid, combined with a small 
quantity of cinnabar, dissolved in nine kilograms of spirits of 
wine. By this method bodies could be kept odorless and 
natural in color for sixty days, after which they began to des- 
iccate, and would mummify so as to last for all time. He had 
previously used a substance which had to be reduced to a fluid 
by heat and which became hard when cooled. This was given 
up for the simpler method outlined above. 

Jean Nicholas G-annel (1791-1852), a shrewd and pro- 
gressive French chemist, introduced a new system of merit in 
the 30's of this (nineteenth) century. Indeed several meth- 
ods bear his name, for he used different preparations at dif- 
ferent times. He claimed to be able to preserve a bod}^ for five < >r 
six months by using acetate of alumina, which he obtained by 
decomposing sulphate of alumina and potash by the action of 
acetate of lead, using five or six liters of this acetate of alu- 
mina of a density of 18° (Beaumi's areometer) to a bod}'. He 



MODERN EMBALMING 239 

was also able to preserve a body thirty to sixty days by using 
a solution of one kilogram of sulphate of alumina to five liters 
of water. In injecting the body he used one of the carotids, 
injecting downward. Later he found-it necessary to open the 
abdomen in order to relieve the stomach and bowels of gas. 
M. Gannal's secret formula, which he claimed contained no 
arsenic, on being analyzed by a governmental commission, 
was found to contain that substance. Embalming with arsen- 
ious solutions having become common in France in Louis 
Philippe's time, the government interfered and prohibited the 
sale of arsenic, and all compositions containing it, for em- 
balming bodies, as well as for several other uses. The further 
use of M. Gannal's solution was therefore stopped. This pro- 
hibited solution was formed by saturating forty liters of wa- 
ter with five hundred grains of arsenious acid, and dissolving 
therein by heat equal parts of sulphate and acetate of alu- 
mina, until the liquid attained a density of 20° (Beaumi's 
areometer). 

Doctor G-annal, of Paris, son of the above, and himself a 
chemist of no mean note, recently communicated the following 
concerning his father's method, which is presumedly the sys- 
tem still adhered to by himself : — 

"My father found in 1836 that chlorid of aluminum injected 
irto the carotid artery had a remarkably preservative effect. 
* * * My father's system, which has not been changed, con- 
sists in injecting a quantity of the liquid, which marks 32° of 
density, estimated at ten per cent, of the weight of the body. 
About half an hour suffices for the injections, and for the rest 
of the process an hour and a half. After the liquid has been 
injected into the arteries the body is wrapped in bands of 
flannel, covered with a sheet and then laid in a leaden coffin. 
Then four or five liters of various essences are poured over 
the body, and the coffin is finally soldered up. In this way 
the remains are absolutely preserved indefinitely." 

Doctor Gannal disapproves of the use of a glass plate in the 
coffin or casket, as he says air will inevitably find its way in, 
which is not desirable; though he admits that tlie only result 



240 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

of this exposure to the air is that the body becomes a dry, 
hard, parchment=like mass. He concludes with a list of dis- 
tinguished Frenchmen embalmed by his fatlier and himself. 

M. Sucquet, in a contest before a board of prominent 
French physicians, in which MM. Gannal, Dupre, and others 
participated, won a signal victory for his method, using a 
non=arsenic preparation. His solution was composed chiefly 
of chlorid of zinc, which he injected arterially. M. Dupre 
made use of carbonic and sulphurous passes, and M. Gannal 
injected a solution composed of equal parts of the sulphate 
and the chlorid of alumina, at a density of 34°. Bodies pre- 
pared according to these processes in the presence of the 
board of physicians mentioned, were buried for fourteen 
month?, when they were disinterred in the presence of the 
same commission. M. Gannal's subject was found to have 
undergone putrefaction, while the one prepared by M. Sue- 
quet was in an excellent state of preservation. The latter 
body, on exposure to the air, without showing any signs of 
putrefaction, dried to a state of hardness little short of that 
of wood or stone. In consequence of the remarkable success 
of M. Sacquet's method, it came into extensive use on the con- 
tient of Europe and to a considerable extent in this country. 

M. Falcony had a desiccatory process which mummified 
the body, giving it a yellow appearance, but preserving it well, 
by simply placing the body, without any mutilation or injec- 
tion, in a bed of dry sawdust to which powdered zinc sulphate 
had been added. In a paper read before the French academy, 
he said he found, after careful tests with different salts, zinc 
sulphate of different degrees of strength, according to the 
condition of the body, weather, etc., to be the best preserva- 
tive material ; that a gallon would perfectly preserve a body. 
Bodies so preserved remained flexible for about forty days, 
after which they began to dry up, though still retaining their 
natural color. Others practiced this system with remarkable 
success. 



MODERN EMBALMING 241 

Dr. Chaussier's Method, as given in Thenard's Chem- 
istry, was, in brief, as follows : The body, completely emptied 
and thoroughly washed, was kept constantly saturated with 
corrosive sublimate; the salt gradually combined with the 
flesh, giving it firmness and rendering it imputrescible and 
incapable of being injured by insects or worms. The author 
states that he has seen a head prepared in this manner, which 
had been exposed for several years to the alternation of sun 
and rain without suffering change, and was easily recognized, 
though the flesh had become hard as wood. 

Franciolla's Method was not greatly different from some 
of the others given. The formula used by him was as fol- 
lows : arsenious acid, four ounces ; carbonate of potash, two 
ounces ; powdered alum, eight ounces. The acid and potash 
were dissolved by boiling in three quarts of water, the alum 
added, and the whole diluted by the addition of water until 
it made one gallon of the preparation. He opened the abdo- 
men, emptied the stomach and other organs, washed, dried, 
and injected them ; then injected the bronchial tubes by punc- 
turing the trachea. For arterial injection the right common 
carotid artery was selected, the blood being removed from the 
veins by puncturing the inferior vena cava, a little below 
the renal vein, and the jugular vein. The blood was let out 
of the vena cava before the abdomen was cleansed, and was 
removed by a sponge or pump. After injecting the head and 
neck, Franciolla turned the injector downward and continued 
the injection until completed. Later in his practice he se- 
lected the splenic artery for injecting. He poured a solution 
over the bowels before replacing them ; a strong solution of 
bichromate of potash being sometimes used, though not with 
the best of satisfaction. He also advocated filling the abdomi- 
nal and thoracic cavities with a liquid preparation of corn- 
starch, water, alcohol, and corrosive sublimate, which, after 
hardening, would prevent the sinking of the parts. 



242 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Brunetti, another Italian, used a method, which, it is 
claimed, reserved bodies so that they resisted decay for hun- 
dreds of years, but they became hard. as stone and were of 
course useless for anatomical study. *They, however, retained 
their form and size in a remarkable degree. By this process 
the circulatory system was thoroughly cleansed by washing 
for from two to five hours with cold water, until it issued 
from the body looking clear. Alcohol was then injected to 
remove the water, and sulphuric ether to carry out of the 
system all fatty and greasy substances, these operations oc- 
cupying five to ten hours. Equal time was spent in injecting 
a strong solution of tannin, after which the body was dried 
by means of a current of warm air which had been passed 
over heated chlorid of calcium. 

A Method in Vogue in Belgium has proven quite suc- 
cessful, though the process is tedious and requires considera- 
ble time for the preparation of the body. The preserving 
fluid is composed of the following ingredients : one=half 
pound each of alumina and sulphate of alumina, and one 
ounce of corrosive sublimate, dissolved in one gallon of water. 
The body is first thoroughly washed with soap and tepid 
water to remove every particle which might obstruct the 
pores of the skin, for the process depends largely upon ab- 
sorption of the solution through the pores. After the body 
has been thoroughly dried by the vigorous use of clean towels, 
the solution is applied externally, keeping the body moist. 
The application must be renewed from time to time as ab- 
sorption and evaporation lessen the supply. The theory of 
this part of the process is to keep the body as nearly as pos- 
sible completely immersed. The stomach and intestines are 
removed through an incision in the abdomen and thoroughly 
cleaned. Blood is withdrawn from the system by opening 
the inferior vena cava, and the arteries are injected through 
the abdominal cavity. The diaphragm is punctured and the 
pleural cavities are filled with a solution of arsenite of soda. 



MODERN EMBALMING 243 

Dr. Tscheirnoff 's Method was as interesting as it was 
thorough, but its necessary expensiveness was fatal to its 
general use. The multilation of the body, incident to this 
method, also detracted from its popularity. He first opened 
the abdomen by making an incision extending from the ster- 
num to the umbilical region, with a short cross incision about 
midway. This gave a diamond=shaped opening exposing the 
abdominal viscera. Entrance to the thoracic cavity was 
gained by carefully cutting the ribs loose from the sternum 
and turning the latter back over the face. This exposed to 
view the heart, lungs, and aortal arch. The next step was 
to displace the bowels and sponge out all fluid or serum found 
around the intestines. The intestines and other internal 
organs, whose contents were liable to putrefaction, were 
emptied, the bladder being vacated through the urinary canal 
by means of a catheter, after which they were injected with 
fluid. He then injected the arteries through the descending 
aorta, which was exposed by moving the small intestine to 
the right, to be replaced on completion of the operation. 

This did not complete the surgical part of the process, for 
the back of the skull was trepanned, making a two=inch cir- 
cular hole, through which the brain, or as much of it as could 
be reached, was removed by means of a long=handled, slender, 
specially=made spoon. This cavity was filled with a thin 
paste made by fully saturating a half=gallon of water with 
alum, and thickening to the proper consistency by the addi- 
tion of plaster of Paris. The wound was then carefully closed 
and sewed up. The thoracic and abdominal cavities and their 
contents were washed and dried and the viscera surrounded 
with tannic acid. The sternum was then replaced and the 
wound temporarily closed, and the body completely enveloped 
in a sheet saturated with fluid, in which condition it was left 
for twelve hours. The envelop was then removed, the cavities 
of the thorax and abdomen reopened, and the plaster of 
Paris and alum paste, mentioned above, was poured over 



2U CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

and around the viscera, filling all the space to the level of 
the ribs. After the paste set tannic acid was sprinkled over 
the top, the sternum was replaced and the wound carefully 
and permanently sewed up. The inside of the mouth was 
filled with cotton saturated with embalming fluid, in order 
that the face should retain its fullness ; the nose=cavity was 
also filled with paste. The entire body was coated finally 
with a preparation of Canada balsam and turpentine, which 
is transparent and excludes the air. 

The Florentine Process of embalming, used chiefly for 
the preservation of subjects for the dissecting table, as 
described by Dr. Venali, an Italian authority on the subject, 
was somewhat like Dr. Tscheirnoffs. The abdomen was 
opened by a transverse incision across the body, the stomach 
and intestines emptied of any gaseous, liquid, or solid con- 
tents, and then injected; the cavity cleaned, sponged, and 
sprinkled with tannic acid. The thoracic cavity was entered 
from the abdomen, through the diaphragm, and similarly 
treated. Arterial injection was made through the femoral 
artery, the opening being made about eight inches below 
Poupart's ligament. 

A German Process of preservation is given, which, when 
properly followed, has kept bodies so perfectly that they re- 
tained their form, color, and flexibility, so that, after a period 
of several years even, they made good subjects for purposes 
of dissection, and were free from offensive smells. The 
formula for this preserving fluid is as follows : in 3,000 grams 
of boiling water, dissolve alum, 100 grams; sodium chlorid, 
25 grams; potash, 60 grams; arsenic acid, 10 grams. This 
solution is then cooled and filtered to 10 liters, when four 
liters of glycerine and one liter of mythlyic alcohol is added. 
Bodies are injected arterially and saturated with the liquid, 
S or 10 liters being used to a body, according to the size and 
condition. 

Dr. Efisio Marini, a surgeon of Naples, has been attract- 
ing no little attention in recent years by his much-vaunted 



MODERN EMBALMING 245 

preservative scheme, claimed to rival the best methods of 
embalming the world has ever seen. According to reports 
he does not incise, nor does he inject; he simply submits his 
subject to a series of baths in a liquid, the composition of 
which he, perhaps wisely, keeps to himself. If these reports 
are to be believed, decomposition is prevented to the end of 
time; there is nothing leathery about the appearance of the 
body ; when desired for anatomical purposes, the subject may 
be made to regain all its primitive freshness ; carry the treat- 
ment to a further stage, and the subject attains the density, 
as well as the consistency, of marble, giving the true metallic 
ring when tapped with a key ; a final process will restore the 
softness, the flexibility, and even the complexion it possessed 
when alive. As Dr. Marini's method is used almost ex- 
clusively for preserving bodies for anatomical purposes, 
naturally none of his subjects have been reported as reaching 
this country, so verification of these remarkable claims is not 
possible. 

Embalming but Little Practiced in England.— Singu- 
larly enough, while the English, in the latter portion of the 
eighteenth, and first part of the nineteenth, century, made 
such wonderful progress in embalming, the art is but little 
practiced to=day in that country; and then generally for 
other than natives of Great Britain — especially for Ameri- 
cans. The late Dr. Benjamin Ward Richardson, F. B. C. S., 
in his work on "The Art of Embalming," published a few 
years ago, said : — 

"Embalming at the present day is, in England, an excep- 
tional process, and when we are called upon to perform it 
here, it is, in ninety=nine cases out of the hundred, for some 
one foreign to our country. I have embalmed fifty bodies, 
but only in two or three instances the bodies of English 
people, and in these exceptional instances the deceased, al- 
though they were born and died in England, had lived the 
greater part of their lives abroad, and were embalmed in 
order to be conveyed to friends at a distance, who wished to 
bury them." 



246 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

The Sunny side, of New York, in a recent issue, published 
the following concerning the condition of bodies embalmed 
abroad and shipped to this country : — 

"No Good Embalming Done Abroad.— As an evidence 
of how limited is the knowledge of embalming in Europe it 
is stated as a fact, by the New York supply houses, that, with 
but very few exceptions, all bodies received from Europe are 
in a revolting condition, unfit to be seen by any of the 
friends or relatives. The exceptional few cases were those 
received from II. L. Mills, a London undertaker who gradu- 
ated from the U. S. School of Embalming, and Beihold 
Wiesel, Frankfort, (Jen-many, who, by the way, has long been 
a regular reader of The Sunnyside, and a student of the 
'Champion Text=Book on Embalming.' Mr. Wiesel, like Mr. 
Mills, docs modern arterial work. 

''Bodies have been received in New York for the embalming 
of which French 'embalmers' charged from $100 to $500 and 
not a single one has ever been presentable. Most of them were 
in the worst stages of decomposition rendering an immediate 
resealing of the casket imperative. 

"A few bodies have been received from Egypt and Japan, 
well preserved, but in a mummified condition. The embalm- 
ing process had evidently been akin to the ancient Egyptian 
mode. That is, all the viscera, etc., had been removed and 
herbs, spices, ointments, and bandages, had been freely used. 
No bodies embalmed by Dr. Marini's much=vaunted process 
have reached this country, hence the expert embalmers of 
New York have had no opportunity of judging his skill. 
From the foregoing the conclusion is reached that what the 
foreign world most sadly needs are embalmers using modern, 
up=to=date American methods. In view of this it is remark- 
able that there are no foreign undertakers, especially Europe- 
an, progressive enough to study the art and science of Ameri- 
can embalmers." 

The editor of the above=mentioned journal, in response to 
an inquiry as to the reliability of this information, empha- 
sizes it as follows : — 

"We consider the information in 'No Good Embalming 
Done Abroad' reliable to this extent, that in New York, at 



MODERN EMBALMING 247 

which point nine=tenths of the bodies received from Europe 
arrive, seldom does the body arrive in a condition that will 
permit of the casket being open for even an hour. My in- 
formation was received from several supply house embalmers, 
who have to handle bodies received from foreign countries. 
Again, on the arrival of the body of every prominent person, 
I have asked if the casket had been opened, and about the 
embalming, and in ninety=nine cases out of one hundred, 
have been informed that the body had gone to pieces." 

However, within the last few years some interest has been 
developed among British undertakers on the subject of em- 
balming, brought about largely through the introduction of 
the earlier editions of this work into that country, and the 
aggressive policy of its publishers. 

Two of the papers published in that country in the interest 
of the undertakers, have more or less vigorously advocated 
embalming, and whereas one undertaker, a few years ago, 
claimed to be the only person holding a diploma from an 
American school of embalming, and was thus supposed to 
be able to embalm, now quite a number of undertakers ad- 
vertise to do embalming. 

What has been said about the British undertakers does not 
apply, however, to the profession in its advanced Australian 
possessions, where embalming is said to be practiced quite 
extensively. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



PRESENT METHODS OF EMBALMING. 



Embalming was made use of by the Ancients, in compli- 
ance with religious superstitions that prevailed in the earlier 
centuries of the world's history. Modern embalming was 
first practiced as a novelty, but later to preserve bodies, by 
the students of anatomy. A few bodies are on exhibition in 
some of the museums of the world, which will prove that the 
methods followed by the modern surgeons from time to time 
were successful. 

Just when the present methods of embalming were intro- 
duced we cannot be certain, but they received their greatest 
impulse during our Civil War (1861-65), when bodies at the 
front were embalmed successfully, and shipped many hun- 
dreds of miles, requiring a number of days before interment 
could take place. Since that time great inrproveinents have 
been made in the methods of embalming, as well as in the 
instruments and fluids used for the purpose. 

The late Dr. Thos. Holmes, of New York, is doubtless just- 
ly entitled to the honor of being called the "Father of Em- 
balming'" in this country. It was he who embalmed for the 
( Jovernment during the Civil War. 

Bodies were formerly embalmed for preservation only, and 
the operations were merely mechanical ; but to=day they are 
embalmed as a sanitary measure as well, which requires a 
knowledge of sanitation. Fluids that are used are not only 
preservative, but strongly disinfectant, for the purpose of 
disinfecting, as well as preserving the body. It is not abso- 
lutely necessary to disinfect all bodies, especially those dying 
of noninfectious diseases; but as we are not always certain 

248 



PRESENT METHODS OF EMBALMING 249 

as to the cause of death, to insure positive safety, the operator- 
should disinfect as well as preserve all bodies, whether death 
was caused by infectious or noninfectious diseases. A dis- 
infectant fluid will preserve as well as disinfect; therefore, 
no harm will result from the disinfection of all bodies. 

It must be remembered that embalming is the filling of a 
body with fluid for its preservation and disinfection. 

The amount of fluid used by most embalmers in the in- 
jection of a body is not sufficient to fill all of the tissues. 
Usually from two to three quarts of fluid are used for em- 
balming all kinds and sizes of bodies, wether they are of a 
hundred or two hundred pounds weight; whether dying of 
an ordinary disease or some special disease; whether the 
temperature is high or low, humid or dry. It matters not 
what conditions are present, the routine is the same in all 
bodies. All tissues except osseous — whether solid, semi- 
solid, or liquid — furnish a soil for the growth of bacteria, 
and the diseased organs in infectious disease are usually 
filled with the disease-producing bacteria, and should be 
filled with fluid to prevent their growth or to destroy them. 
Only such parts of the body as are filled with fluid will be 
preserved and disinfected; and if too small a quantity is in- 
jected to fill the body, then the embalmment will not be com- 
plete. 

In a great majority of cases, however, nature assists in 
preserving the body for "the usual length of time" ; thus the 
presence of rigor mortis, or a high, dry, or cold temperature, 
will retard putrefaction, especially in the more solid of the 
tissues. When these conditions are present, all that is nec- 
essary for the preservation of the body is the injection of a 
smaller quantity of fluid; but to disinfect a body, and to 
make preservation certain, in all instances the tissues should 
be filled thoroughly with fluid. The amount of fluid to make 
success certain should vary according to the size, disease, and 
condition of the body, surrounding temperature, etc. While 
but a gallon of fluid will be required to fill some cases, two or 
three gallons will be necessary to fill others. 



250 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

The usual methods by which embalming is accomplished 
are arterial, cavity, cranial and sub=cutaneous injection, 
which will be treated separately in the following pages. 

REASONS FOR EMBALMING. 
Embalming is practiced to=day chiefly for two reasons; 
namely, that of preservation and that of sanitation. 

PRESERVATION AS A REASON. 

In performing the "last sad rites" over the dead, the period 
of mourning prior to interment usually lasts from two to four 
days, and in case of shipment the time intervening between 
the death and burial sometimes is prolonged for months. 

Previous to the introduction of embalming as practised to- 
day in this country, the undertaker, or whoever took charge 
of the funeral, usually had to handle a putrefying mass of 
animal tissue, sometimes in a horribly corrupt state, and al- 
ways with more or less putrid odor. Indeed, at the time of 
the funeral, in such cases, the casket frequently had to be 
closed and allowed to remain outside of the church or home 
while the funeral was being held, on account of the putres- 
cent odor. Of course, ice, where used, would, in some cases, 
modify these results to a certain extent. Sometimes rigor 
mortis, when well marked, would last for the "usual period 
of time," preventing putrefaction. But still, in extremely 
hot weather, this was not sufficient to prevent the commence- 
ment of putrefaction. 

With the increased demand for more expensive funerals 
came- the demand for better means of preserving the body 
until the interment could take place. To put a mass of 
putrefying animal matter into a fine plush casket, or an ele- 
gantly finished metallic casket, lined with the finest of fabrics, 
could not be thought of; therefore, it was necessary to pre- 
serve the body until the interment could be made. 

Moreover the population of this country is migratory. 
Families separate more widely than they do in the older 



PRESENT METHODS OF EMBALMING 251 

countries. One member of a family leaves and goes into a 
new part of the country, or one may be on a visit to friends 
in a distant part, and sicken and die ; or death may be caused 
by an accident. In such instances it becomes necessary to 
ship the remains to friends, maybe a thousand miles distant, 
taking a period of a week or ten days from the time of death 
until the interment can take place. In all such cases, it is 
necessary to prevent putrefaction, and this can be done only 
by the application of preservatives. 

SANITATION AS A REASON. 

Sanitation as a reason for embalming is one of very great 
importance. All bodies dying from infectious diseases should 
be thoroughly sterilized, or incinerated at once, for the pur- 
pose of destroying the germs of contagion and infection. If 
the body is to be interred, then embalming will be the only 
safe means by which these micro=organisms can be destroyed. 

By the action of the National Baggage Agents' Association, 
with the aid of enactments of legislatures and boards of 
health, in many States, it is made incumbent upon every 
person who ships bodies dying from infectious diseases or 
who holds public funerals, to embalm them thoroughly, and 
prepare them in a manner that will prevent dissemination of 
disease. Health boards in every State, county, city, and 
town, where such laws are not already in force, should re- 
quire this. It would lessen the danger in our own, and be 
a safeguard to future generations, if all bodies, whether to be 
shipped or not, were disinfected thoroughly. 

If interred without disinfection, the spores of the bacteria 
are not destroyed, and, as they will retain their vitality for 
a long time in either earth or water, they remain a constant 
source of danger, Our water supplies may become contami- 
nated by streams running through or near cemeteries, which 
receive the drainage therefrom, and take up the spores and 
convey them to any distance, thus spreading the disease. 



252 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

The occasional changing of cemeteries, and the frequent dis- 
interment and removal of bodies from one burial place to 
another, are the means often of spreading disease, where dis- 
infection was not effected at the time of burial. Therefore, 
the thorough embalmment, and consequent disinfection of 
all bodies is the only safeguard and should be rigorously en- 
forced. 

NECESSITY FOR THOROUGH EMBALMMENT 
Embalming, as practiced by the majority of undertakers, 
will not thoroughly sterilize the body, for the reason that 
the fluid injected does not reach all the tissues, nor does it 
extend to the abnormal and fecal matter contained iu the 
viscera and within the cavities of the body. Too many em- 
ploy only the cavity method of treating the body, which, in 
many cases, with the aid of rigor mortis and an average tem- 
perature, will be sufficient to preserve the body for the 
'usual length of time," but it will not disinfect it. 

Again, the artery may be raised at some point and fluid 
injected, in addition to the operations upon the cavities, and 
still the body will not be sterilized, because enough fluid has 
not been used. To thoroughly disinfect a body, a strong- 
disinfectant fluid should be used and in sufficient quantity 
to fill the capillaries of the entire system; also to fill the 
lungs, alimentary canal, and pleural and peritoneal sacs. 

It will take more fluid for this purpose than is usually in- 
jected. Two or three quarts injected into the arteries, and 
a like amount injected into the cavities, of a body weighing 
175 to 200 pounds, is not sufficient. It cannot be stated 
exactly how much fluid should be injected into a body, but 
a rule we have followed more recently has been to inject into 
the arteries a quantity equal to about one-twentieth of the 
weight of a body of average size. In a smaller body, a little 
larger proportion might be injected, and in a larger body a 
little less. This amount will be sufficient to fill the capillar- 
ies, and, when the body is in a perfectly relaxed state can 



PRESENT METHODS OF EMBALMING 253 

be easily injected. If a body is in a rigid condition, or 
the walls of the arteries are contracted, it will be impossible 
to inject this amount, but a much greater amount can be in- 
jected in some bodies. Frequently, from two to three gal- 
lons can be introduced into the arteries of an average-sized 
body; this quantity will do no harm, unless the fluid is com- 
posed of chemicals that will affect the tissues, by causing 
discoloration. 

The Condition, Appearance, and Disease of the body to 
be embalmed should be be taken into consideration before 
commencing the operation. If post-mortem contraction of the 
arteries has taken place and passed off, and the blood has set- 
tled into the dependent parts, and no discoloration appears 
upon the surface, the artery can be raised and the injection of 
fluid follow at once ; but, if the face be discolored, the body 
should be placed on an incline and blood should be with- 
drawn from the heart and vessels. This can best be accom- 
plished by alternately withdrawing the blood and injecting 
fluid. The morbid condition resulting from the disease should 
be understood, and the parts involved should be injected thor- 
oughly. If gases are present in the cavities they should be 
removed through the hollow needle and fluid injected before 
the removal of the needle, for the reason that the fluid should 
be mixed with the material from which the gas is produced, 
in order to thoroughly sterilize it. 

Sometimes the fluid cannot be injected through the arteries 
on account of their obstruction by clots, disease of their walls, 
or extensive mutilation. When this is the case, fluid may be 
injected hypodermic-ally through the cellular or fatty tissues 
immediately beneath the skin, over the upper portion of the 
body. A large amount of fluid can be injected in this manner, 
which settles downward, gravitating through the tissues, per- 
fectly sterilizing them. 

Appearance after Thorough Embalmment.— Changes 
in the appearance of the surface, owing ;<> the chemicals con- 
tained in the fluid that has been injected into the body, will 



254 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

manifest themselves, very likely, within a few hours after 
death. A lifelike appearance will follow the introduction of 
some fluids, while a marble=like whiteness, or a brownish or 
leaden tinge succeeds the use of others. In some bodies none 
of the above changes occur. These changes will indicate that 
the fluid is having an effect upon the rete mucosum and 
dermis only, and not, as some would have you believe, that 
the body will keep forever. Neither does it indicate, in those 
bodies where the changes do not take place, that second in- 
jection should be resorted to to keep them the ''usual length 
of time." The rule is that ordinary cases do not require a 
second injection, but occasionally an exception will occur. 
Very frequently special cases, such as septicemia, consump- 
tion, typhoid fever, peritonitis, morphine cases, etc., require 
a second or even a third injection. Cases to be preserved in- 
definitely, such as those to be shipped, those to be kept for 
identification, those to be placed in family vaults, etc., may 
require a number of injections; but if enough fluid — say 
about one pint for each twenty pounds weight of body — is 
injected at the first injection, a second injection will be rarely 
necessarv, if ever. 



DEATH. 

ITS MOOES, SIGNS, AND CHANGES. 



CHAPTER XVII. 
DEATH: ITS MODES, SIGNS, AND CHANQE5. 



MODES OF DEATH. 

A little experience in the sick chamber will suffice to teach 
ns that, although all men must die, all do not die in the same 
manner. In one instance, the thread of existence is suddenly 
snapped; the passing from life, and apparent health, perhaps, 
to death, is made in a moment. In another, the process of 
dissolution is slow and tedious, and we hardly know the in- 
stant at which this change is completed. One man may, re- 
tain possession of his intellectual faculties up to his last 
breath; another may lie unconscious and insensible to all 
outward impressions for many hours or days before the 
solemn change is completed. 

In our inquiry and investigation, we seek to ascertain the 
mechanism and the laws governing these mysterious changes. 
In this investigation, we need not go into any deep physio- 
logical questions respecting conditions that are essential to 
life. It is sufficient for our purpose to remark that life is 
inseparably connected with continued circulation of the blood. 
As long as the circulation continues, life, or organic life at 
least, remains. When the blood ceases to circulate, death 
will soon follow. Our inquiry into the different modes of 
death, therefore, resolves iteelf into an investigation of the 
different ways in which the circulation of the blood may 
tin; illy cease. 

There is ample provision made in the construction of the 
body for maintaining and carrying on the circulation. First, 
a great hydraulic apparatus is distributed throughout the 
body, consisting of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. 
Next, there is a large pneumatic apparatus within the body, 

256 



DEATH: ITS MODE 8, SIGNS, AND CHANGES 257 

consisting of the lungs and respiratory tract. These are worked 
and regulated by the power which is vested in the nervous 
system. If either of these systems fail to continue in action 
the circulation will stop, and life will cease. The functions 
that these machines respectively perform are called vital 
functions; consequently, the heart, the lungs, and the brain 
are called vital organs. If the functions of one of these 
organs cease, those of the other two will be arrested speedily. 

The phenomena of death vary remarkably, according as the 
interruption begins in the one or in the other of these organs. 
Bichat describes death as beginning at the head, beginning at 
the heart, and beginning at the lungs, 

Syncope. — For the heart to continue to propel the current 
of blood, two things are necessary : first, the power of faculty 
of contracting; second, a sufficient quantity of blood in its 
chambers to be moved, and also to stimulate them to con- 
traction. If this proper stimulus is withheld, or is largely 
deficient, the heart will soon cease to beat. This would in- 
dicate, therefore, that there are two ways in which death may 
be said to begin at the heart : that of death of anemia ; and of 
death by asthenia. Death by anemia is caused by want of 
due supply of blood to the heart; in death by asthenia there 
is a total failure of contractile power in that organ. The 
state of suspended animation common to both of these forms 
of dying is expressed by the term syncope. 

Apnea, Asphyxia. — Death beginning at the lungs is 
caused by the want of due arterialization of the blood. There 
are two perfectly distinct modes in which this cause of death 
may proceed, although the ultimate results are identical : 
first, when access of air to the lungs is suddenly prevented by 
the closure of the respiratory tract; second, when the muscles 
of respiration cease to act as a result of some disease or 
injury of the brain. The first form results in death by 
asphyxia; the second form, in death by coma. 



258 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

The term "asphyxia" properly signifies pulselessness, or 
want of pulse; but, from long continued use of its current 
signification, it cannot be restored to its proper meaning 
without much confusion, although the term "apnea" (priva- 
tion of breath) would be a much better term to express this 
mode of death, to which the word asphyxia is so commonly 
applied. 

Air may be prevented from entering the lungs in various 
ways: by closure of the mouth and nostrils; by submersion of 
the same openings in some liquid, or in gases, which, though 
not in themselves poisonous, contain no oxygen; by mechani- 
cal obstruction of the larynx or trachea, from within by 
morsels of food, or from without by hanging; by pressure 
upon the chest and abdomen, which prevents the movements 
of the chest, ribs, and diaphragm ; by paralysis of the muscles, 
as from injury or disease of the spinal cord, above the origin 
of the nerves which supply the muscles of respiration, in- 
cluding the diaphragm ; or from a section of the phrenic or 
intercostal nerves; or by wounds extending through the walls 
of the thorax, which admit the air freely to the surface of the 
lungs. It may occur also when both pleurae become filled 
with liquid, as in dropsy or large effusions. 

If the prevention of air entering the lungs is sudden and 
complete, certain external phenomena will present them- 
selves: strong contractions of all the muscles concerned in 
breathing occur; struggling efforts at respiration are made, 
prompted by the uneasy sensations which every one who has 
tried how long he can hold his breath has experienced, and 
which, when unrelieved, soon rises to agony. This extreme 
distress is transient only, being succeeded by sensations of 
vertigo, then loss of consciousness and convulsions. In a 
short time all these phenomena cease, except a few irregular 
twitches or tremors of the extremities; the muscles relax, 
but the movements of the heart, and even the pulse at the 
wrist, still continue for a short time after all other signs of 
life cease. During this process, which is only of two or three 



DEATH: ITS MODES, SIGNS, AND CHANGES 259 

minutes duration, the face becomes flushed and turgid, and 
then livid and purplish. Even before life is extinct the veins 
of the head and neck swell and the eyeballs seem to protrude 
from their sockets. 

The internal changes which cause these outward symptoms 
proceed from the preventing of the chemical alteration, natur- 
ally produced in the blood within the capillaries of the pul- 
monary circulation. The blood, continuing venous, passes at 
first in considerable quantities into the pulmonary veins, and 
thence to the left side of the heart and, in turn, to all parts 
of the body. This venous blood, loaded with carbonic acid, 
is inadequate to sustain or to excite the functions of the 
parts it thus reaches. 

In the brain, the effect of the unnatural circulation is felt 
at once and is shown by the convulsions that ensue. The 
motion of the blood in the pulmonary capillaries is impeded 
from the first, and its current is retarded gradually until it 
stagnates altogether. The right cavities of the heart are 
distended, while the venous congestion becomes general. The 
blood that passes through the left side of the heart still re- 
tains the carbonic acid, and, in a very short time, all the 
blood in the body is charged with this gas, which results in 
the enfeeblement of the contractile power of the heart and 
arteries, and gives the surface of the body that dark=bluish 
color seen in asphyxiated cases. In this state, even after 
the heart has ceased to beat, if the cause which excluded the 
air be removed, and fresh air be readmitted, as by artificial 
respiration, the venous blood in the pulmonary capillaries 
undergoes the required change — that is, becomes arterial- 
ized — , and begins to pass onward, and, by degrees, the circu- 
lation is restored. 

When death has occurred from asphyxia, the left side of 
the heart is found to contain a small quantity of dark blood, 
while its right chambers are greatly distended, and the lungs, 
the venae cava*, and the whole venous system, are gorged with 
venous blood. 



260 CHAM I'fOX TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

After sudden death, however caused, the blood seldom 
coagulates; and the venous congestion, consequent upon 
rapid apnea, although great at first, will subside in due time, 
by descending into the dependent portions of the body. 

Death by asphyxia is extremely common. It may be pro- 
duced by anything that will close the glottis, such as edema of 
the sub=mucous tissues of the larynx, or inflammation or 
tumefaction of its lining membrane, or the presence in the 
windpipe and bronchi of what are called false membranes, 
such as are formed in croup, diphtheria, etc. It may be the 
result of disease in the substance of the lungs themselves, 
preventing them from receiving the required amount of air, 
as in pneumonia and in pulmonary apoplexy; or it may pro- 
ceed from disorders of the bronchial mucous membrane, the 
air=passages becoming closed by excessive secretions, as in 
bronchitis; or from disease of the pleurae, in which there are 
extensive effusions, causing pressure upon the lungs; or from 
diseases of any kind which extend into the thoracic cavity, 
with like effect. 

Coma. — Death beginning at the head ends by paralyzing 
the respiration and circulation. The nerve=centers situated 
above the medulla oblongata and pons Varolii are not es- 
sential to life, except in so far as animal life, and the possi- 
bility of adaptation to surroundings, are concerned. Dis- 
eases of the brain, however, are liable to prove fatal by in- 
direct action on the medulla and pons through pressure, ex- 
tension of inflammation, and the like. Certain poisons, also, 
whether introduced from without — such as opium and nar- 
cotics generally — , or arising within, owing to the elimination 
of waste products, as in uremia, effect the nerve centers, both 
cerebral ami spinal, and not only produce unconsciousness, or 
coma, but also paralyze the respiratory and cardiac centers. 

Iu death produced in this manner, the individual lies un- 
conscious, reflex action is abolished, the breathing becomes 
stertorous, the chest ceases to expand, the blood is no longer 



DEATH: ITS MODES, SIGN'S, AND CHANGES 261 

aerated, and thenceforward precisely the same internal 
changes occur as in death by asphyxia. 

The differences between the two forms of dying amount to 
this : in death by asphyxia, the chemical changes of the blood 
which take place in the lungs cease first, and then the circu- 
lation of venous blood through the arteries suspends the sen- 
sibility; in death by coma, the sensibility ceases first, and, 
in consequence of this, the movements of the thorax and the 
chemical changes of the blood which take place in the lungs, 
cease also. Therefore the circulation of venous blood through 
the arteries is in one case the cause, and in the other the 
effect, of the cessation of animal life. In one case, the cir- 
culation ceases because the actions of respiration cease; 
while, in the other, the failure of the acts of respiration arises 
from a suspension of the nervous powers. 
SIGNS OF DEATH. 

It is not always! easy to determine when life is extinct. 
There is no early, single, positive sign to determine whether 
the solemn change has taken place or not. It requires the 
combination of a number of signs to determine when the 
spark of life has become finally extinguished. In apparent 
death, the functions of the vital organs are reduced to such 
an extent that life seems to be destroyed. The conditions 
which most resemble actual death are syncope, asphyxia, 
and trance — particularly the last — ; also to some degree, 
hibernation, hypnotism, and catalepsy. 

Cessation of the Heart's Action.— The most reliable evi- 
dence of death is proof of the cessation of the heart's action. 
This proof is very hard to obtain. If it were possible to cut 
down to and examine the heart ocularly, the proof would be 
positive; but, to depend upon external tests and signs, the 
heart and large vessels being located so deeply, makes it 
uncertain. Mere pulselessness is no proof, for the heart may 
still be beating, and the blood may bo nissing through in such 
a manner that no contraction of the «maller branches of the 
arteries will be perceptible to the touch. The ear, placed 



262 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

against the surface of the chest over the heart to gather 
sounds, cannot be relied upon. The use of the stethoscope, 
in the hands of a physician or any other expert, and con- 
tinued for some length of time, may determine whether the 
heart has ceased to act or not. When the body is in a condi- 
tion of suspended animation, the heart beats very slowly and 
feebly; the number of beats may be reduced even to ten or 
twelve per minute, and the heart action be so feeble that it 
will require a positive expert to determine that there is any 
sound whatever. 

The application of a tight ligature around a finger or toe 
has been recommended by Bagnus ; when the string has been 
so applied, if life is extinct and the circulation has ceased 
entirely, there will be no change in color in the surface of 
the distal end of the digit, but, if the circulation still con- 
tinues, it matters not how feebly, the surface of the extremity 
will sooner or later assume a bluish tint from strangulation 
of the venous flow. 

if the arm is brought out from the body and placed in a de- 
pendent position and an artery raised and opened and found 
empty, it indicates that the heart has ceased to act; if the 
artery is not empty, whether blood spurts from the wound 
or not, it would not be proof that either life or death is 
present. 

If cessation of the heart's action is absolutely established, 
we know positively death is present and no other signs need 
be considered. 

Cessation of Respiration. — Respiration may appear to be 
suspended, but still may be going on. We may observe the 
chest very closely and not be able to see the least movement; 
by placing the hands over the chest the movement may not be 
felt. The motion of tin 1 abdominal wall, that is so constant 
in the respiratory movement, may appear to have ceased en- 
tirely, yet respiration may be going on very slowly and super- 
ficially. 



DEATH: ITS MODES, SIGNS, AND CHANGES 263 

If a cold mirror be held before the mouth and nostrils, the 
moisture in the air coming from the lungs will be condensed 
on the surface if respiration is going on ; if a flock of cotton 
wool be laid upon the lips and across the nostrils, it will move 
to and fro if respiration has not ceased ; if a cup of water be 
placed on the chest, the reflection on its surface will move if 
respiration is still going on. These are all methods well 
adapted for the detection of respiration. 

If the results are all negative, the indications are that 
respiration has ceased, but still they are not positive. Mois- 
ture coming from the body and not from the lungs may con- 
dense on the cold mirror in sufficient quantity to be noticea- 
ble ; the flock of cotton across the lips and nose may be moved 
by air currents other than those coming from the lungs; a 
movement of the reflection on the surface of the cup of water 
may be observed, resulting from shaking of the floor from 
walking or other causes. 

Loss of Vitality. — With the cessation of the circulation, 
the skin becomes ashy=pale in color, which is due to failure 
of the blood to remain in the upper surfaces of the body; 
the tissues lose their elasticity; the tension of the eyeball is 
reduced ; the cornea becomes opaque ; the pupils fail to react 
to light. If life is still present and a bright light is thrown 
on the pupil, the pupil will contract, and, on its removal, will 
dilate again. If life be extinct, and the skin is pulled up, 
it fails to resume its normal position at once, having lost its 
elasticity; if irritants are applied to the skin they do not 
cause a vital reaction. If a match or hot iron be applied 
to the skin, if life is present, a blister will rise and fill in 
the usual manner; if death is present, the blister will not 
appear. If the skin is cut or punctured, the wound will re- 
main open, if death is present. 

Certain parts may retain their independent vitality after 
somatic death. The muscles may be made to contract by the 
application of an electric current two or three hours after 
death, the muscular energy as yet not having disappeared. 
In cases of sudden death, or in diseases that produce great 



204 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

shock to the system, contractions of the muscles may take 
place after death, with sufficient force even to change the 
entire position of the body, especially in those who die in 
full muscular vigor. 

CHANGES OF DEATH. 

The following - changes of the body not only indicate death, 
but aid in fixing the probable time at which death occurred : — 

Cooling of the Body. — After death, except under certain 
special circumstances, as in fatal cases of cholera and yellow 
fever, the body ceases to be a source of heat=production, and, 
therefore, is to be looked upon as an inert mass, possessed of 
a higher temperature than the average medium, which 
parts with heat according to certain physical laws. 
The superficial coldness found in collapse, which is due to the 
cessation of the peripheral circulation, must not be mistaken 
for cadaveric coldness; for there is still an amount of inter- 
nal heat after death which has to pass off, and the body, 
which is cold to the touch before death, may rise in tempera- 
ture as the internal heat radiates. A thick coating of adi- 
pose tissue, a covering of woolen clothing, etc., retards cool- 
ing of the body ; a high temperature will also retard, while a 
low temperature will increase, the cooling. 

According to Drs. Wilkes and Taylor, if a body, dying of 
an ordinary disease, is placed in an average temperature in 
a nude condition, it will cool at a rate of about one degree, 
F., per hour. If that be the case, and the conditions of tem- 
perature are of the average, a body that is found with a 
surface temperature of eighty degrees will have been dead 
about eighteen and one=half hours, the natural temperature 
of the body being ninety=eight and one=half degrees ; the dif- 
ference between eighty and ninety=eight and one=half degrees 
indicates the period of time that has intervened since death. 

Hypostasis, or Post-mortem Discoloration. — The blood 
gravitates to the dependent parts of the body after death, 
which gives rise to livid discoloration upon the under surface 
of the trunk and neck. These discolorations are termed 



DEATH: ITS MODES, SIGNS, AND CHANGES 265 

hypostases, and usually occur from eight to ten hours after 
death. In cases of long=continued sickness, as for instance 
in the adynamic fevers, the muscular power of the body is 
so weak that the heart and vessels are unable to force the 
blood from the dependent portions into the upper parts of the 
body; failing to keep it all circulating throughout the whole 
body, it settles and fills the capillaries and small vessels of 
the under surfaces of the body, even while life is present, 
causing discolorations. Then, again, postmortem discolor- 
ations may be confounded, in some cases, with ecchymoses, 
or extravisations of blood; but they differ from ecchymoses 
in the fact that the blood is contained in the vessels and not 
extravisated into the tissues, as may be shown by an incision 
into the skin. If the blood remains in a liquid state, the 
hypostatic discolorations may be made to disappear by turn- 
ing the body over. The fact that these discolorations may 
appear before death, renders hypostasis a sign that cannot 
of itself be depended upon. 

Fost-Mortem Staining. — While hypostasis is making its 
appearance, other changes are taking place in the upper part 
of the body. The blood undergoes earlier and more rapid 
change than any of the tissues in the body. The hemoglobin 
escapes from the red corpuscles of the blood, partly by exuda- 
tion and partly by the destruction of the corpuscles them- 
selves, and is dissolved in the liquid of the blood, and passes 
through the walls of the vessels into the surrounding tis- 
sues, causing a discoloring, known as post=mortem staining. 
This is of a uniform, pinkish=red color, and must be distin- 
guished with care from the redness of hyperemia, which ap- 
pears only in points and layers. This staining may be 
noticed along the course of the large vessels, as over the 
ventral regions, and along the external jugulars, the sap- 
henous veins, etc. The amount of discoloring is in propor- 
tion to the amount of blood in the veins and the rapidity of 
its decomposition. 

Rigor Mortis. — Arrest of nutrition is accompanied in the 
muscles by (lie stale of rigiditv, known as rigor mortis, or 



26G CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

post=mortem or cadaveric rigidity. This rigidity is due to 
coagulation of the muscle plasma. It comes on after the mus- 
cular energy is used up, or, in other words, as soon as the 
muscle has lost its vitality — that is, when the application of 
the poles of the battery to the muscle will fail to make it con- 
tract. The rigidity usually begins in the muscles of the neck 
and face, and gradually extends from above downward, so 
that while the upper parts of the body appear flaccid, the 
lower extremities are rigid. Putrefaction usually begius 
in the same region and follows in the same order. As a rule, 
while rigor mortis is present, putrefaction progresses very 
slowly. In rare cases, however, putrefaction goes on rapid- 
ly in the soft viscera, producing gas sufficient to distend the 
walls of the abdomen and till the other cavities, while the 
muscles remain markedly rigid. Usually, while rigor mortis 
is present, if fluid is injected into the cavities, preventing the 
growth of the putrefaction bacteria within, the body can be 
kept "the usual length of time" ; this is the reason for the 
a] >]»arent success of those who do nothing more than cavity 
embalming. As soon as rigor mortis disappears, the external 
soft parts of these bodies begin to putrefy. 

Rigor mortis takes place in all bodies after death ; the 
muscles become firm and shortened, apparently in a state of 
chronic contraction. The time of its appearance and its in- 
tensity depends on the state of muscular nutrition at the 
time of death; the greater the store of muscular energy, the 
longer it is before rigidity sets in and the longer it lasts; on 
the contrary, the greater the exhaustion of the body, the 
sooner the rigidity sets in and the sooner it passes off. In 
persons dying in vigorous health, as by accident, rigor mortis 
is longer in making its appearance than in those dying from 
exhausting diseases, as consumption, the adynamic fevers, 
etc. In cases of full muscular vigor, the rigidity will come 
on in from one to twelve hours and will last from one to ten 
days; while in those of exhaustion, -( may come on at once 
and pass off within an hour. 



■■ 



DEATH: ITS MODES, SIGNS, AND CHANGES 267 

Rigor mortis is not positive as a sign of death, as there is 
rigidity of the muscles following apparent death, as in cases 
of asphyxia or trance. If the body is rigid, hi a case in 
which there is a doubt that death is present, the rigidity 
may be broken up. If it is a case of trance or that of con- 
traction of the muscles following drowning, it is likely to re- 
turn, especially in case of trance; but if death is actually 
present it will not return. 

Putrefaction is a sure sign of death, but it will not be 
noticed until two or three days or more have supervened; it 
cannot be considered, therefore, as an early sign. In an 
average temperature, the bod}' having died of an ordinary 
disease, a deep=green color will be noticed in the lower sur- 
face of the abdomen externally, and sloughing of the mucous 
membrane in the throat and pillars of the fauces internally. 
Putrefaction is treated of fully in the. following chapter. 

SUMMARY OF THE SIGNS OF DEATH. 

It must not be forgotten that somatic death must be dif- 
ferentiated from suspended animation due to trance, 
asphyxia, profound syncope, hibernation, hypnotism, and 
catalepsy. For this purpose we have summarized the fol- 
lowing signs of death; if a majority, or a large number at 
least, of these are affirmative, you can rest assured that death 
is present : — 

If death is present — 

By placing the ear to the chest over the heart, no sounds 
will be heard. 

On tying a ligature around an extremity, no swelling or 
discoloration will appear beyond the ligature. 

If a cold mirror be held over the mouth, the surface will 
not become moistened. 

If the ear is applied over the lungs, no sounds of respiration 
will be heard. 

If a cup of water is placed on the chest, there will be no 
movements of rays or ripples on the surface. 



268 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

If the skin is cut, no blood will flow, nor will the wound 
close. 

If the skin is punctured % a large needle, the wound will 
not close up. 

If heat be applied to the skin, no blister will form. 

If ammonia be injected hypodermically, there will be no 
reddening of the skin. 

If the hand of the subject be held to the light, instead of 
the light showing pink through the inner edges of the fingers, 
it will be opaque. 

The blood sinks in a few hours after death to the most de- 
pendent parts, reddening them a livid hue ( post=mortem dis- 
coloration) , while the upper surfaces become very pale. 

The eves will be sunken into the sockets. 

The eyeballs will become flattened. 

The cornea becomes opaque. 

The iris loses its sensibility to light and hangs loosely, ren- 
dering the pupil irregular in shape. 

The pupil will neither dilate nor contract, if a strong light 
is held before it. 

The eyelid loses its elasticity. 

The white, transparent color of the conjunctiva is lost, 
often becoming black or gray. 

Rigor mortis may or may not be present. 

The body cools finally to the temperature of the surround- 
ing atmosphere. 

If an artery be opened, as a rule, it will be found empty. 

If putrefaction is present, all other signs may be ignored. 

In conclusion, do not consider from this summarizing that 
each sign enumerated is a positive indication of death, or 
that all of them arc infallible. But, if a fair number of these 
signs indicate the presence of death, you are justified in the 
conclusion that death is really present. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



PUTREFACTION: ITS MODIFICATIONS AND PECULIARITIES. 



After death has occurred, the tissues of the body undergo 
various changes as to the color and consistency of the solids, 
semisolids, and fluids. By these changes, known under the 
several names of putrefaction, decomposition, decay, etc., due 
to the presence of bacteria, the tissues are finally resolved into 
their constituent elements. Putrefaction may occur locally 
during life, and septic changes may take place to some extent 
before death. However, the term is not applied, usually, un- 
til the changes in color, consistency, and smell are clearly per- 
ceptible. Putrefaction may be denned as the separating of the 
constituent elements of the body, due to the presence and 
growth of bacteria. 

The first external sign of putrefaction is a deep=green color 
in the surface of the abdomen, beginning in the right iliac 
region, over the cecum and appendix. This gradually extends 
until the whole wall of the abdomen is covered. If the larynx 
and trachea are examined, the mucous membrane will exhibit 
changes in color and consistency. 

Putrefaction takes place first in the soft or less compact 
tissues; then the fibrous or harder tissues follow, while the 
most compact tissues, as those of the uterus, resist the final 
change longest of all. In the course of time, however, all of 
the tissues are entirely decomposed, becoming detached from 
the skeleton, which is exposed and gradually falls to pieces. 

Putrefaction is effected by niicro=organisms, known as sap- 
rophytes, or putrefactive bacteria. When rigor mortis passes 
off, decomposition generally begins. The discolorations that 
result are due to alterations in the transuded hemoglobin. 

269 



270 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

The process of putrefaction is accompanied by the generation 
of gases very offensive to the smell, such as sulphureted hy- 
drogen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, ammonia, etc. 

It is impossible to say how long it will take for a body to de- 
compose, as it depends partly on the condition of the body it- 
self, but principally upon temperature, moisture, and expos- 
ure. A moist, high temperature, with free exposure, favors 
rapid putrefaction. A dry, high temperature has a tendency 
to dry the tissues, and in this way produces mummification in- 
stead of putrefaction. Moisture alone tends to produce sa- 
ponification of the tissues, more particularly of the fatty, 
causing the formation of a substance known as adipocere, as 
when the body lies in water or moist earth. (See page 272. I 

Putrefaction progresses more rapidly in the air than in the 
water ; while in the earth its progress is much slower than in 
water. With an average temperature, under ordinary circum- 
stances, putrefaction will appear about the third day. If the 
temperature be high and moist, it will begin much sooner; if 
it is extremely high, without moisture, dessication or mummi- 
fication will result, for the reason that bacteria do not grow 
or develop in a high temperature unless moisture is present. 
If a body dies in the high altitudes, where no moisture exists, 
where there are no dews, where the lands have to be irrigated 
lo produce vegetation, putrefaction will be very slow if it 
takes place at all. The atmosphere, being so dry, absorbs the 
moisture from the body so rapidly that the bacteria which ex- 
ist in the body cannot develop. If the body be placed in the 
earth in the high altitudes, where the ground is perfectly free 
from moisture, dessication will result, and the body will be 
preserved for all time. 

At the recent World's Fair in Chicago, there were several 
mummies from the high table lands of Peru. These, from all 
appearances, had been buried in a sitting posture, indicating 
that they were of (he aboriginal tribes and that they may have 
been centuries old. These bodies were not embalmed but were 



PUTREFACTION : ITS MODIFICATIONS 271 

preserved by nature's method. The ancient embalmers seem 
to have been aided by a very dry atmosphere, as mummies are 
found only in countries and localities where natural condi- 
tions existed that materially aided in dessication or mummi- 
fication. 

Putrefaction is less rapid in a body placed at some depth in 
the water. This is due, no doubt, to the absence of aerobic 
bacteria, which exist and grow only where there is. plenty of 
oxygen. However, there are present in the alimentary canal 
anaerobic bacteria, which develop without free oxygen. The 
temperature of the water being low, these anaerobic bacteria 
will slowly produce putrefaction, eliminating gases sufficient 
to bring the body finally to the surface, where the aerobic bac- 
teria will enter, and putrefaction will progress more rapidly. 

In some cases that are placed in the ground, putrefaction 
will not begin for a long time, while in others it will progress 
rapidly. In our demonstrations we have noticed the results 
in a number of different cases. A body that had been placed 
in a very wet soil, the top of the box resting under two feet of 
earth, and water entirely covering it, in the month of July, 
when the temperature was very high, at the end of ten days, 
had the appearance of what is commonly called a "floater"; 
putrefaction had progressed to a very great degree. In an- 
other case the body had been buried twenty=four hours after 
death, during the last week in August, in a dry, sandy soil, 
at a depth of about five feet, and in December, when it was 
taken up and used for demonstrations, it did not exhibit any 
signs of putrefaction whatever. 

When the body is exposed to the atmosphere in the low alti- 
tudes, in passing through its various changes, it will be many 
months before the soft tissues become entirely disintegrated. 
The uterus has been found fit for judicial examination nine 
months after death, in a case where antiseptics had not been 
used. 

It is difficult to state how far putrefaction shall have ad- 
vanced in a given time, for, under similar conditions appar- 



272 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

ently, a very great divergence of results have been observed. 
The necessary conditions for putrefaction are heat and moist- 
ure. Putrefaction will not continue in a temperature below 
freezing; neither in a high temperature where no moisture 
exists. 

ADIPOCERE. 

Adipocere (Adeps, fat ; ccra, wax) is a substance formed by 
spontaneous change in dead animal tissues. It somewhat re- 
sembles spermaceti in consistency and is of a dull=white or 
buff color, but it is less crystallin in fracture, the surface be- 
ing marked by blood=vessels and other textures. When adip- 
ocere is formed in damp situations, or in the early stages of 
its formation, it is soft, and, if rubbed between the fingers, 
a greasy feeling is communicated. Its odor is peculiar and 
somewhat disagreeable. 

When dissolved in ether, adipocere leaves a delicate, fila- 
mentous web. It burns with a blue flame, and white ash re- 
sults. It is a soap, composed of margaric and oleic acids, 
combined with ammonia, the fixed alkalis, and alkalin earths. 
With the age of the specimen, the relative proportion of the 
latter ingredients varies. 

If a recent specimen is examined with the microscope, it is 
found to be composed of broken down tissues and fatty gran- 
ules, together with a few acicular scales or crystals. These 
granules are seen in what was muscular tissue to assume the 
same arrangement as the muscular filaments, thus having an 
appearance resembling the early stage of fatty degeneration. 

Adipocere was first described long ago. The flesh of an- 
imals exposed to moisture or placed in running water will 
change very readily into adipocere. Dilute alcohol or greatly 
weakened nitric acid will produce it in abundance, as is seen 
in the specimen jars of the anatomist. When bodies of men 
or other animals are buried in peat moss, they are frequently 
found to have been converted completely into adipocere. 
When the bodies were moved from the Cimetiere des nnio- 
<■< nl.s, ai Taris, to the Catacombs, in 1780-87, Pourcroy found 



PUTREFACTION : ITS MODIFICATIONS 273 

many of these bodies converted into what he named adipocire, 
which name has since been retained, taking in this country, 
of course, the Anglicized form. It has been suggested that 
possibly this substance, formed from the waste flesh of an- 
imals, could be adapted to some useful purpose, but the te- 
nacity of the disagreeable odor, and the presence of other dif- 
ficulties, have interfered very materially, preventing the sug- 
gestions from being acted upon. 

Chemists differ in opinion in regard to the immediate 
changes which give origin to adipocere, but when it is consid- 
ered that after death the tissues are usually resolved into 
their primary elements by some process, if not by putrefac- 
tion, it is possible to perceive that adipocere may be derived, 
not only from free fat, but from elements of fat existing and 
obtained from decomposition of their tissues. It may be de- 
scribed as both an educt and product. This opinion is con- 
firmed by the results of the researches of Bauer and Voit, who 
showed that fatty matter was derived from metamorphosis of 
albumen in starved animals, to which phosphorous had been 
administered. 

The formation of adipocere has h special interest for the 
pathologist, who has pointed out that the change is analogous 
almost to fatty degeneration in the living body, thereby estab- 
lishing the pathological doctrine that fatty degeneration is 
the result of retrograde metamorphosis due to defective nutri- 
tion. It is this condition that is sometimes supposed by the 
non=professioned to be petrifaction. 

"SKIN-SLIP": ITS CAUSES AND PREVENTION. 

Its Causes. — Man} T embalmers have been led to believe 
that slipping of the skin is caused by certain fluids used in in- 
jecting the arterial system. This is an error needing correc- 
tion. "Skin=slip" is caused by the putrefactive softening of 
the rete mucosum. Ti occurs in all cases where putrefaction 
has advanced extensively. The early softening is almost ex- 



1>74 CHAMP I OX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

clusively in cases of heart, liver, and kidney diseases, and 
oilier morbid changes tliat result in dropsy, and there is al- 
ways more or less dropsical effusion into the subcutaneous 
tissues which transudes into the rete, resulting in putrefactive 
s »ftening. The general effusion into the subcutaneous and 
other tissues prevents the fluid from passing through the cap- 
illaries, thereby interfering with a proper distribution of the 
fluid to the skin. Slipping of the skin occurs at times when 
fluid is used only in the cavities, none being injected into the 
arteries; under such circumstances the fluid certainly could 
not produce "skin=slip." No fluid that contains strong anti- 
septics injected into the vascular system will cause slipping 
of the skin. 

Skin=slip, whether occurring before or after the process of 
embalming, is due to putrefactive changes. If it occurs after 
embalmment, it is positive proof that the part or parts have 
no! received fluid, and the rational treatment for such cases 
is the re-injecting, using enough fluid to fill the parts thor- 
oughly. 

Its Prevention.— Oases that die from diseases causing 
dropsical effusion in the subcutaneous tissues should be han- 
dled carefully. A little formaldehyde should be added to the 
fluid that is injected, say from two to three ounces to each 
quarf of fluid. Formaldehyde hardens the tissues more rap- 
idly and completely than any other known substance. Zinc 
has a similar effect, but it is not so rapid or powerful in its 
action. Formaldehyde, having a great affinity for water, will 
act, admirably in this class of cases. It will harden the soft 
layer of the skin, and, at the same time, destroy the bacteria. 
A cloth moistened with formaldehyde, placed upon the parts 
exposed when the skin is slipping, and covered with rubber 
or oiled silk, or something that will exclude the air, will have 
a tendency to harden the soft layer. Such treatment will be 
satisfactory, and is all that is necessary. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



THE BLOOD: ITS CHARACTERISTICS AND CHANGES. 



The Blood is the circulatory fluid, by means of which the 
nutrition of the body is effected. It carries nourishment to 
all the tissues (except the cuticle, nails, etc.), and the waste, 
in the form of carbonic acid, to the lungs, where it is thrown 
off. It is a fluid, when pure and free from carbonic acid, of a 
bright=red, or rather, scarlet color (arterial) ; when impure 
and full of carbonic acid, of a dull=red or purple color 
(venous). 

The exact proportion of the blood to the entire weight of the 
body is not known, as it is impossible to gather all the blood 
in the body. The approximate amount is about one=tenth of 
the weight of the body, or about fifteen pounds of blood in a 
body weighing one hundred and fifty pounds. 

To the embalmer, the blood is the most important fluid in 
the body, for the reason that it frequently appears near the 
surface in the parts exposed, causing a dark=bluish discolor- 
ation; it often closes up the channels through which the em- 
balming fluid is conveyed into the tissues; it also decomposes 
readily, forming gases within the vessels. In many cases it 
should be removed, and it it a good plan to remove it in all 
cases, but its property of coagulation after a period of time 
often prevents this. 

Composition of Blood. — The blood is composed partly of 
a watery substance, called plasma or liquor sanguinis, and 
partly of red and white corpuscles. The red and white cor- 
puscles constitute a little less than one^half of the mass of the 
blood. The red corpuscles are about 1/3200 of an inch in 
diameter and about 1/10000 of an inch in thickness; their 
color is due to the hemoglobin. White corpuscles (leuco- 

275 



276 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

cytes) are much larger and loss abundant, existing only in the 
proportion of about one to six hundred and thirty=six of the 
red corpuscles. The plasma also contains fibrin, albumen, 
and various mineral substances. 

Circulation of Blood.— If reference is made to the anat- 
omy of the heart, arteries, and veins, in Part First, a complete 
anatomical description of these vessels will be found. This 
description should be studied until it is comprehended thor- 
oughly, then it will be easy to understand the circulation of 
the blood. 

The blood, in making the complete round of the circulatory 
system, passes through two circulations, the greater or sys- 
temic, and the lesser or pulmonary. 

The systemic circulation begins in the left ventricle and 
ends in the right auricle. The blood passes from the left ven- 
tricle, through the aortic opening and the aorta and its 
branches, to the capillaries in every tissue of the body, where 
nourishment is given off to, and the waste is received from, 
the tissues; then it passes through the veins to the right au- 
ricle ; thence through the right auriculo=ventricular opening 
into the right ventricle. 

The pulmonary circulation begins in the right ventricle and 
ends at the left auricle. The blood, in making the circuit of 
this circulation, passes from the right ventricle, through the 
pulmonary artery and its branches, to the capillaries in the 
w alls of the air=cells, where carbonic acid gas is given off and 
oxygen is received, purifying it; it then passes through the 
pulmonary veins to the left auricle; thence through the auric- 
ulo=ventricular opening into the left ventricle. 

In the above description of the circuit of the blood, it will 
be seen that venous blood passes through the pulmonary ar- 
tery, while arterial blood passes through the pulmonary veins 
in the pulmonary circulation. Except in fetal life, this is the 
only artery that carries venous blood, and these are the only 
veins that carry arterial blood. 

Coagulation of the Blood— The blood, while circulating 

freely hi the living body, retains its fluidity; but after death, 



THE BLOOD: ITS CHARACTERISTICS 



27? 



or when drawn from the vessels and exposed to the air in the 
proper temperature, it coagulates or sets into a jelly=like 



[Right 

IvSua Clavjrn 



Pulmonary 

VEIN6 



Superior v 

CMVA I | 




[ RlOHT 
COMMON 

i carotid 

Innominate 







Left Svb» CLRWfRhJ 

VEINb j) 



x 



Fig. 38. Chambers and Valves of the 
sels, showing Course of Circulation. 




Heart and the larger Bloods Ves- 



mass. This mass will separate, after a time, into a clear, yel- 
lowish liquid, called serum, and a semisolid, reddish portion, 



278 CHAMPION TEXT nook' ON EMBALMING 

called the clot or crassamentum. The former is composed of 
the plasma, minus the fibrin, which has united with, and now 
binds together, the red and white corpuscles to form the crass- 
amentum. 

While in the vessels after death, the blood coagulates very 
slowly — as a rule, much slower than when removed from the 
body and exposed to the air. When the blood is perfectly nor- 
mal and the temperature is high, it will coagulate much 
quicker than if the body is exposed to a low temperature. 
Heat increases while cold retards the tendency to coagulation. 
As a rule, when the blood is in a normal condition and in an 
ordinary temperature, it coagulates in from twelve to twenty- 
four hours after death. Therefore, if the blood is to be re- 
moved, the operation for removal should take place as soon 
as possible after life ceases. 

After death, the blood is found usually in the veins, the ar- 
teries being emptied by post=mortem contraction of their mus- 
cular coats, this taking place within an hour or two after 
death. In the large veins and right side of the heart the coag- 
ulation may be firm, while in the smallest or peripheral veins 
and capillaries it is generally liquid, being seldom found per- 
fectly coagulated. Coagula are sometimes found in the left 
side of the heart and arteries, but they are much smaller than 
those found in the right side of the heart and large veins. 

The coagulation of blood can be retarded or prevented by 
the addition of certain chemicals, such as a solution of potash 
or soda and some of their salts; but practically we cannot 
make application of these means of liquifying or preventing 
coagulation, as it is impossible to reach the blood while in the 
vessels. It is true some have advocated the injection and ejec- 
tion of solutions of these salts for the purpose of liquefying 
and removing clots, but that operation is impracticable. 

There are other conditions that prevent or retard coagu- 
lation. Poison of venomous serpents, narcotics, prussic acid, 
suffocation, whether by drowning, hanging, or poisonous 
gases, prevent, while lightning, electricity, blows on the ab- 



THE BLOOD: ITS CHARACTERISTICS 279 

domen, cholera, or violent exercise, retard coagulation in the 
vessels. 

There are certain diseases that will accelerate coagulation, 
such as pneumonia and typhoid fever in their first stages, 
apoplexy, sudden death in persons of full habit, etc. 

Cause of Arteries Being Empty After Death.— As 
stated, the arteries are usually found empty after death. This 
condition is due to the tonic contraction of the non=striated 
muscular fiber in the heart and in the muscular coats of the 
arteries. The muscular walls of the ventricles and the arter- 
ies are the first to lose their irritability, and become rigid and 
contracted within an hour or two after death, usually remain- 
ing in that state for from a few minutes to an hour or two ; 
but in rare cases the walls may continue rigid for twenty= 
four to thirty=six hours, then become flaccid again. The con- 
traction of the arteries is so great as to produce marked di- 
minution of their caliber. This, no doubt, contributes largely 
to the passage of the blood from the arteries into the veins, 
which almost invariably takes place within an hour or two 
after death. It also frequently prevents a free flow of fluid 
through the arterial system. 

After death, the blood is found in the deep veins and de- 
pendent parts of the body. The body should always be placed 
on an incline, in order to gravitate the blood to the dependent 
parts of the trunk, thus facilitating its removal. After the 
body has been embalmed, it should be placed on a level with 
the head slightly elevated, so that the fluid will remain dis- 
tributed to all parts of the body. 

Circulation of Fluid. — In arterial embalming, fluid is in- 
jected into the arteries and capillaries of the systemic circu- 
lation. It does not pass through or into the heart when the 
valves are intact, unless it makes the entire circuit of the sys- 
temic and pulmonary circulations, which it is not likely to do, 
unless a large amount of blood is withdrawn. If the semi- 
lunar valve at the aortic opening, and the mitral valve at the 
aurieulo=ventricnlar opening, arc diseased and fail to close 



280 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

the openings, the fluid may regurgitate or take a backward 
course, through these openings into the ventricle and auricle, 
thence through the pulmonary veins to the capillaries around 
the air=cells, and back through the pulmonary artery to the 
pulmonary opening on the right side of the heart — that is, 
providing these vessels are empty — but, as above stated, if 
the valves are intact, no fluid will enter the chambers of the 
heart or the lungs in this manner except through the coronary 
vessels. 

If the artery is raised at any poinl in either of the upper ex- 
tremities, and the body be upon the incline, the fluid will pass 
through the axillary and subclavian, and on the right side in- 
nominate, into the aorta; from there it takes a downward 
course through the arteries to the most dependent parts, fill- 
ing them first, and reaching each arterial branch successively, 
;is the level of the fluid rises, supplying all of the tissues, 
reaching the upper extremities, neck, and head last. After 
this point is reached, however, it is well to continue the injec- 
tion until all the capillaries are completely filled, which will 
be indicated usually by the change of color, the distention of 
the part or sense of touch or by incising the skin, when fluid 
may be seem to issue from the incision. 

Collateral Circulation. — 'The communications between 
arteries are very free and numerous, and with the diminution 
in size of the branches, increase in frequency; so that through 
the medium of the minute ramifications, the entire body may 
be considered as one uninterrupted circle of inosculations or 
anastomoses. This increase in frequency of anastomosis in 
the smaller branches is a provision for counteracting the 
greater liability to impediment existing in them than in the 
larger branches. This communication of the arteries is very 
remarkable where freedom of circulation is of vital impor- 
tance, as in the ( Mrcle of Willis, or in the arteries of the heart. 
It is also strikingly observed where obstruction is most likely 
to occur, as in the distribution to the alimentary canal. 



THE BLOOD: ITS CHARACTERISTICS 281 

around joints, and in the hand and foot. On account of this 
free communication existing everywhere between arterial 
branches, it is possible for the blood to circulate in every 
part, even after a ligature has been applied to the main ar- 
tery. The ramifying branches given off from the artery above 
the ligature inosculate or anastomose with those given off 
from the trunk of the vessel below the ligature. These anas- 
tomosing branches constitute the collateral circulation." 

By this it may readily be seen that the collateral circulation 
is a side circulation, taking the place of a main artery which 
has been occluded. Now, this very condition arises when we 
tie in the arterial tube into an artery. We usually tie it in 
with the nozzle toward the part, or center of the circulation. 
The fluid is injected toward the heart. If the brachial artery 
is used, the fluid will soon fill the hand and arm through this 
collateral circulation, so in every part of the body the same 
result will follow through the anastomosing of the ramifying 
branches in every tissue of the body. 

"It should be observed that in the division of the artery into 
two branches, the combined area of the two branches is some- 
what greater than that of the single trunk ; and if the com- 
bined area of all the branches at the periphery or surface of 
the body were compared with that of the aorta, it would ap- 
pear that the blood in passing from the aorta into the numer- 
ous distributing branches, was flowing through a conical 
space, of which the aorta might represent the apex and the 
surface of the body the base. The advantage is sufficiently ob- 
vious of this important principle in facilitating the circula- 
tion. The increased channel thus provided for the current of 
blood, serves to compensate for the retarding influence of fric- 
tion, which results from the distance of the heart, and the 
divisions of the vessels." 

Tt has been estimated that the blood current at the aortic 
opening flows at the vale of one mile in l 1 , minutes, while at 



282 CHAMPION TEXT BOOK OX EMBALMING 

the peripherics or smaller subdivision of the arteries, its flow 
is thai of a snail's pace: thus we may observe the reason*for 
the large vessels filling so quickly at the beginning of the in- 
jection of fluid into the arterial system, which are so appar- 
ent in most all instances. The operator should not be mis- 
led by the idea that when the large vessels are filled, enough 
fluid has been injected to fill all the tissues of the body, as the 
fluid moves so slowly through the smaller subdivisions and 
capillaries that il takes time and constant pressure to fill all 
of the smaller branches and subdivisions of the arteries which 
supply the entire surface of the body, 



CHAPTER XX. 



ARTERIAL EMBALMING. 



RAISING AND INJECTING ARTERIES. 

Selection of the Artery. — In the selection of an artery for 
injection, convenience should govern the operator. If the 
body is already dressed, the radial or posterior tibial likely 
will be most convenient, as their use will not necessitate the 
removal or cutting of the clothing. If blood is to be with- 
drawn through the vein, then one of the brachials, femorals, 
auxiliaries, or carotids should be selected. The common ca- 
rotid should be avoided on account of the mutilation, leaving 
an unsightly scar, that may interfere with the wishes of the 
friends with regard to the dressing of the body. If a large 
amount of blood is to be withdrawn, the femoral artery and 
vein should be raised, as they are more dependent when the 
body is placed on an incline, and consequently more blood can 
be withdrawn from the femoral vein than from any other. A 
drainage=tube, sufficiently long to reach above Poupart's liga- 
ment as far as the common iliac, is all that is necessary, as 
there are no valves intervening between the bifurcation of the 
common iliac and the right auricle. There is no necessity for 
undue exposure in either sex. To clear the face and neck of 
blood, the axillary will answer equally as well as the femoral 
vein. 

As far as injection of fluid is concerned, one artery is just 
as good as another. All arteries are parts of the same chan- 
nel, branches of the great aorta. No valves exist in any part 
of their course. 

It is believed, quite commonly, that by injecting the fem- 
oral artery there is great danger of "flushing the face." This 
belief is erroneous. Flushing of the face does not result from 
the injection of the femoral artery unless the arteries are 



284 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

full ; then it will be of a bright=red color, except in asphyxia, in 
which case the blood in both the arteries and the veins will- be 
of a dark=purplish color. When the flash is of a dark=bluish 

color, it always results from the injection of a vein, except, as 
stated above, in a case of asphyxia. The internal saph- 
enous vein is mistaken frequently for the femoral artery. It 
is a superficial vein, usually is found empty, and lies a short 
distance to the inner side of the femoral artery in Scarpa's 
triangle. This vein is taken up frequently, not only by the 1 
younger members of the profession, "but by the older, when 
the guides are not followed closely. After the arteries are 
emptied there is no danger of flushing the face from the lit- 
tle blood that remains. This is so diluted, if fluid is injected 
slowly, that its effect upon the surface will not be noticed. 

If postmortem contraction has not taken place, and the 
arteries are full, either the operator should wait until they 
are emptied by the contraction of their walls, or he should 
place the body upon a high incline, raise the femoral artery, 
insert the drainage=tube, directing the outer end into a vessel, 
and allow the blood to drain out of the arteries as much as 
possible. 

Usually it will not be necessary to wash out the arteries, as 
the blood, especially if liquid, will run out by gravitation. If 
the blood is coagulated extensively, it will not pass out of the 
arteries by gravitation, nor can it be washed out. If a small 
(dot occludes the channel, possibly it may be dissolved or 
forced out by the washing process. To wash out the arteries, 
raise the brachial artery as well as the femoral, and inject 
fluid through the former; after the clot is dissolved, the fluid 
will appear at the opening in the femoral artery. This proc- 
ess only washes out the large channels between the two points 
of incision. 

To Distinguish the Artery. — There is no excuse for mak- 
ing the mistake of injecting a vein instead of an artery, if the 
location, relation, appearance, and touch of the artery be 
noted carefully. 



ARTERIAL EMBALMING 285 

An artery is usually constant in its position ; it is accom- 
panied by one or two veins — primary arteries by one, second- 
ary by two, called venae comites, — and sometimes by a nerve; 
the artery, vein (or veins), and nerve are contained in a com- 
mon sheath. Arteries, when empty, soon after death, are of 
a creamy=white color: they retain their cylindrical form, 
while veins flatten or collapse. Arteries have a firm feel to 
the touch, while veins are soft and velvety. 

A vein that accompanies an artery, if a single one, is con- 
stant in its relation to the artery in the various parts of its 
course. Superficial veins have no sheath, nor are they, as a 
rule, -accompanied by other vessels;. they are found within the 
layers of the superficial fascia. Veins, after death, are usu- 
ally full of blood, and when full appear bluish; when empty, 
they are of the same color as the arteries. The superficial 
veins that are usually mistaken for the arteries — the basilic 
and internal saphenous — are commonly empty, and are of 
the same color as the artery. 

The nerves are white, inelastic, hard, and dense in struc- 
ture, and are not hollow like the accompanying vessels. 

Raising and Incising the Artery.— To raise an artery at 
any point, the embalmer should be acquainted with the anat- 
omy of the part as well as the linear and anatomical guides for 
making the incision. He should be able also to distinguish be- 
tween an artery, vein, and nerve. In raising an artery, an in- 
cision should be made through the skin. at the proper place, of 
sufficient length to expose an inch or more of the artery when 
it is raised out of the wound ; then dissect carefully down 
through the fat, superficial fascia, and deep fascia, to the 
sheath of the artery; raise the vessels out of the wound; in- 
cise the sheath with the curved-bistoury on the grooved- 
director, or with the scissors. Cleanse the artery by separat- 
ing from it the vein (or veins) and nerve, if there be any ; 
then lake it upon the end of the finger or the shank of the 
aneurism=needle or bistoury, and make an incision through 
the wall, in the direction of its long axis, with the curved^ 
bistoury or scissors. 



286 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Never make a diagonal or transverse cut in the artery for 
the reason that it weakens it, and, if the cut is made too ex- 
tensive, an artery will break under a small amount of force, 
resulting- from the introduction of the arterial=tube. 

An artery may be raised in any part of its course without 
reference to the collateral circulation, as there is always suf- 
ficient collateral circulation to supply the distal end of the 
artery with plenty of fluid. 

The Injection of Fluid. — After the incision of the artery 
is made, insert an arterial=tube of proper size, with the noz- 
zle toward the heart; pass two threads underneath the artery, 
tying the artery around the tube with one, leaving the other 
loose around the distal end of the artery. Then commence 
the injection of the artery, and when fluid appears at the 
distal end tie it also. 

Fluid should be injected into an artery very slowly and 
carefully, as rapid or forcible injection may rupture an ar- 
tery or the capillaries. In cases of consumption, the arteries 
may be affected or weakened by the disease, the ends being 
tilled with fibrous plugs, and the walls, having been destroyed 
partly by disease, may give way when force is used. There- 
fore, in these cases especially, the injection should be made 
slowly and carefully. The walls of the arteries and capil- 
laries, particularly in the case of old people, are frequently 
rendered brittle by atheromatous deposits, causing them to 
rupture easily; or they may be destroyed entirely. In the 
former case, fluid will pass directly into the tissues in such 
quantities as to produce a brownish or grayish spot; while in 
the latter, no fluid will reach the part, and a soft spot will 
likely result from putrefaction. 

If blood still remains in the arteries, rapid injection will 
force it in volume to the surface, it not having time to mix 
with the fluid. If its course is through the common carotids, 
it would cause a flushing of the face and neck of a bright- 
red color. For these reasons, it is necessary to inject slowly 
and carefullv to have the best results. 



ARTERIAL EMBALMING 287 

The appearance of fluid at the distal end indicates an intact 
collateral circulation. If the fluid does not appear at the 
point of incision by the time the other parts of the body have 
received enough, remove the tube and tie the proximal end, 
insert the arterial tube into the distal end, and fill that part 
of the body with fluid. 

After removing the arterial=tube from the artery and drain- 
age=tube from the vein (if it has been used for the removal 
of blood), sew up the wound, and cover with adhesive plaster. 

A Second Injection becomes necessary in some cases, 
enough fluid to preserve and disinfect the body properly not 
having been injected during the first injection. Sometimes 
rigor mortis is present, which interferes ; in other cases, as in 
consumption, the arteries are weakened within the lungs and 
leakage would follow, if sufficient fluid were injected at one 
time to preserve the tissues ; so that it becomes necessary to 
inject a second time. If the arteries are strong, and the walls 
of the arteries and tissues are in a perfectly relaxed state, a 
second injection will not be necessary, as a sufficient amount 
of fluid can be injected in a single operation to preserve and 
disinfect the body. 

If 'the case is one in which it is deemed necessary to make 
a second injection, the arterial=tube should not be removed 
after the first injection, but, after the removal of the pump, 
the outer end of the tube should be capped; or, better still, 
an arterial tube with a cut=off or stop=cock, which is sold to 
the profession by the different supply houses in the country, 
should be used. These tubes can be closed by simply turning 
the cut=off, which makes them much more convenient than 
capping the ordinary tubes. After waiting several hours, or 
until the fluid has passed or transuded through the tissues, 
the cap can be removed, or the cut=off turned, the pump ap- 
plied, and usually as much fluid injected as in the first injec- 
tion. After the body has received as much fluid as is thought 
necessary to preserve and sterilize it, the tube can be removed, 
and the wound closed in the usual manner. 



ARTERIAL EMBALMING 289 

THE BRACHIAL ARTERY AND BASILIC VEIN. 

Location. — The brachial artery passes downward through 
the brachial region, extending from the lower part of the 
axillary space to the bifurcation at the elbow, along the inner 
border of the biceps muscle. Anomalies may exist in the 
artery in this region; instead of dividing at the elbow, it 
may divide at the lower margin of the axillary space, and 
descend along the inner border of the muscle as two trunks, 
each reduced to about half the normal size, in the same sheath, 
and reunite in the lower part of its course, and then again 
divide at or below the elbow ; or they may continue on through 
the forearm as the radial and ulnar arteries. 

The Linear Guide. — The course of the brachial artery 
may be marked out by drawing a line from the middle of the 
axillary space (arm=pit) to the center of the albow, provided 
the palm of the hand be turned upward. This line will be 
immediately over the artery, which will be found by cutting 
through the skin at any point on the line, and dissecting 
through the subcutaneous tissues toward the center of the 
arm. 

The Anatomical Guide, used for locating the brachial 
artery, is the inner border of the biceps muscle. The artery 
lies in the groove between the biceps and triceps muscles, 
close to the inner border of the biceps. It is not covered by 
the muscle in any part of its course. It will be found be- 
neath the deep fascia, inclosed in a sheath with the venae 
comites and median nerve. 

To Raise the Artery, the arm should be brought out from 
the body to a right angle, and the palm of the hand turned 
upward. In this position the linear guide will indicate the 
exact position of the artery, or the inner border of the biceps 
muscle can be used as the guide. Make an incision through 
the skin in the middle third of the arm, pushing the fatty 
or cellular tissue to either side of the cut with the handle 
of the scalpel; pass the grooved=director underneath the 
superficial fascia from one end of the incision to the other, 



290 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

pushing the farther end out through the fascia; then cut on 
the grooved=director, with the sharp=pointed bistoury or scis- 
sors, through the superficial fascia. Dissect through the 
deep fascia in the same manner. The incision through the 
tissues should be two or three inches in length. 

After the deep fascia is divided, the sheath of the vessel 
will be brought to view. It should be raised upon the 
handle of the aneurisni=needle and opened. The nerve will 
usually be seen first, the artery lying beneath it, with the ac- 
companying veins attached to either side and in front. These 
should be separated and the artery brought up out of the in- 
cision ; place it upon the end of the finger or the shank of 
the aneurism=needle, and make a cut through the wall in the 
direction of its long axis with the curved sharp=pointed 
bistoury or scissors. A double thread should be drawn 
through, beneath it, one thread being drawn to the upper 
part of the cut and the other to the lower. The arterial= 
tube should be inserted into the artery and the artery tied 
around the tube, the distal end being left open until fluid 
appears and then tied. 

To Raise the Basilic Vein.— if the basilic vein is to be 
raised at the same time, it will be found lying to the inner 
side of the artery, within the layers of the superficial fascia. 
It should be raised and opened in the same manner as the 
artery; insert the vein=tube, push it through the vein until 
it reaches the heart and tie the vein around the tube in the 
same manner as the artery is tied around the arterial=tube. 
The pump should then be attached to the vein=tube, and all 
the blood that is possible should be withdrawn; then attach 
the pump to the arterial=tube, and inject a pint or two of 
fluid ; then pump out blood again as before, continuing al- 
ternately pumping out blood and injecting fluid, until all 
the blood possible is withdrawn, and enough fluid has been 
injected into the body. 

THE FEMORAL ARTERY AND VEIN. 

Location. — The femoral artery is situated in the anterior 
and inner side of the thigh. It extends from Poupart's liga- 



ARTERIAL EMBALMING 291 

ment downward and inward to the upper border of the pop- 
liteal space, back of the knee, where it becomes the popliteal 
artery. 

The Linear Guide. — To locate the course of the femoral 
artery, a line should be drawn from the front of the promi- 
nence of the ilium (hip=bone) to the center of the pubic 
arch. This line indicates Poupart's ligament. A second 
line should be drawn from the center of Poupart's ligament 
to the inner side of the knee=joint. The latter line will in- 
dicate the course and position of the femoral artery, when 
the foot is turned out. 

The Anatomical Guide is the inner border of the sarto- 
rius muscle, which arises from the front part of the hip=bone 
and passes obliquely downward and inward to be inserted 
into the upper, internal surface of the tibia, just below the 
knee=joint. In the upper part of its course the femoral artery 
passes through Scarpa's triangle, from its base to its apex. 
The base of the triangle is bounded by Poupart's ligament; 
the inner side by the adductor longus muscle, and the outer 
side by the sartorius muscle. 

To Raise the Artery, an incision should be made in the 
lower part of Scarpa's triangle, about two or three inches in 
length, beginning about two inches below Poupart's ligament, 
extending the cut downward along the inner border of the 
sartorius muscle. It is necessary to make the incision near 
the sartorius muscle, as the artery lies close to the inner 
border of the muscle in the middle third of the thigh. If 
the incision were made carelessly, at a little distance from 
the inner border of the muscle, it would be immediately over 
the internal saphenous vein, which is large, with rather firm 
walls, and usually is empty. This vessel can be mistaken 
easily for the artery, which mistake often occurs, and, when 
fluid is injected through it, "flushing of the face" results. 
After the incision is made through the skin, the fat should 
be scraped to either side by the handle of the scalpel; the 
grooved=director should be passed beneath the superficial 



292 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

fascia from one end of the incision to the other, and the 
fascia cut through on the grooved=director with the sharp= 
pointed curved=bistoury ; then the deep fascia should be raised 
and severed in the same manner. The sheath of the vessels 
will now be seen, which can be brought to the surface by the 
hook or finger, and the handle of the instrument placed under- 
neath. The sheath should be opened in the usual manner 
by the grooved=director and bistoury or scissors. 

The artery will be found in front, the vein lying a little 
to the inner side and back of the artery. The artery should 
be raised upon the finger or the shank of the arterial=hook 
or aueurism=needle, and opened with the curved=bistoury or 
scissors, making the incision in the direction of the long axis 
of the vessel. Pass threads beneath ; insert the arterial=tube 
with the point towards the heart and tie the artery around 
it; then attach the pump and begin the injection slowly and 
carefully. Inject enough fluid to fill the tissues thoroughly. 
After sufficient fluid has been injected, the tube may be 
capped, if there is a suspicion that another injection will be 
necessary. If not, remove the tube, tie the artery, and sew 
up the incision. 

To Raise the Vein.— If it is desired to remove the blood at 
the same time, the vein can be raised out of the wound, and 
opened by making a cut in the direction of the long axis, and 
a silk vein=tube, of sufficient length to reach above Poupart's 
ligiment as far as the common iliac, inserted and tied in the 
vein. If the body now be placed in the incline, and the arms 
extended above the head, the blood will flow by gravitation 
and the pressure of fluid in the peripheral vessels and capil- 
laries. 

THE COMMON CAROTID ARTERY AND INTERNAL JUGULAR 

VEIN. 

The common carotid is the largest artery that is used for 

embalming purposes. Why it is selected by embalmers we 

arc not aide to state, unless it is from a misapprehension. It 

has no advantages over arteries in other regions. True, it 

is large in size, but it lies deeper and nearer the parts that 



ARTERIAL EMBALMING 293 

are exposed to view, making it possible for the mutilation 
easily to be seen. Fluid cannot enter the circulation more 
readily from the neck than it can from the upper or lower 
extremities. Blood can be withdrawn through the basilic or 
femoral vein as well as through the jugular. Physicians use 
the carotid artery for the purpose of injecting heavy or 
semiliquid solutions. The embalmer uses nothing but thin 
liquid solutions, which will fill the entire circulation just 
as easily from other regions. Therefore, there is no reason 
why the carotid artery should be raised in any case what- 
ever, where the arterial system is intact. 

Nearly all arguments favoring the superiority of the com- 
mon carotid artery in embalming are fallacious and without 
merit, especially if the usual instruments are used in the 
operation. It is stated on apparently good authority that 
the brachial artery should never be selected where the death 
has been caused by tuberculosis, especially where hemorrhage 
of the lungs is the immediate cause of death, for the reason 
that as soon as the pressure rises in the pulmonary circula- 
tion, the bronchial arteries are ruptured, and the fluids es- 
cape through the mouth and nostrils, etc., and that by in- 
jecting downward through the aorta, the lower extremities 
and abdominal organs may be preserved before the rupture 
of the pulmonary circulation could occur. Another states 
that it is the best artery on which to operate, because it is 
nearer the center of circulation, and that he always gets a 
better circulation of the fluid ; also that if he wishes to with- 
draw blood from the face, the operator may open the internal 
jugular vein, thus draining the face to remove discoloration, 
and that it is possible to inject fluid upward. 

All of the above reasons are not sufficient to convince one 
who understands thoroughly the anatomy and physiology of 
the circulation that they have any advantage whatever over 
the operations on the axillary vessels. Surely, fluid enters 
the aorta as directly when injected into the vessels from the 
axillary space as it docs from any point in the region of 



294 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

the neck. It will enter the lower extremities just the same, 
and with as much force. It will fill the lower extremities and 
1 deserve them without making- any more pressure upon the 
bronchial circulation than if fluid were injected through the 
common carotid. Practice, as well as common sense, proves 
it to be the case. As to the better circulation, and the re- 
lieving of congestion of the face, the arguments are scarcely 
worthy of notice. Surely a vein=tube, introduced through 
an opening in the axillary vein and reaching to the bifurca- 
tion of the innominate vein, will cause blood to flow through 
the internal jugular just as readily, and much more so than 
if a single internal jugular is opened and the drainage tube 
pointed upward toward the face. To relieve opposite side 
the blood would pass through precisely the same vessels. 

After considering thoroughly all of the reasons (many of 
which are not noted above) advanced in favor of the superi- 
ority of the vessels in the neck for the operations in embalm- 
ing, we are yet unable to find any merit whatever in any 
yet advanced. 

Location. — The common carotid artery is situated in the 
neck, and extends from the upper border of the larynx 
(Adam's apple) to the junction of the sternum and clavicle 
( sternoclavicular articulation). The right arises from the 
innominate and the left from the arch of the aorta. 

The Linear Guide is a line drawn midway between the 
angle of the lower jaw and the mastoid process behind the 
ear, down to the junction of the sternum and clavicle. The 
artery will be found beneath this line. 

The Anatomical Guide is the anterior border of the 
sternocleidomastoid muscle, which arises from the upper end 
of the sternum and inner end of the clavicle, or eollar=bone, 
crossing upward and a little backward to be inserted into 
the mastoid process of the temporal bone. 

To Raise the Artery, the operator should not make an in- 
cision above the clavicle, because of the multilation that 
results, which cannot easily be hidden from view. The in- 



ARTERIAL EMBALMING 295 

cision should be made through the skin over the front of the 
clavicle and upper end of the breast=bone, in a transverse 
direction, about three inches in length in the adult. The 
skin should be dissected and drawn upward, and the fat 
scraped from the superficial fascia and tissues beneath. The 
tendon of the lower end of the sternocleidomastoid muscle 
should be cut through and the deep fascia severed, when the 
sheath of the vessel will be brought to view. This should 
be opened, when the artery will be found on the inner side, 
the vein on the outer side, and the pneumogastric nerve in 
the middle. Raise the artery upon the finger or the shank 
of the.aneurism=needle; make an incision with the curved= 
bistoury or scissors in the direction of its long axis; insert 
an arterial=tube with its point toward the heart ; tie the artery 
around the tube; commence the injection slowly and care- 
fully. When fluid appears at the distal end, tie it as 
directed for raising the brachial and femoral arteries. After 
sufficient fluid has been injected, remove the tube and tie the 
artery, sew up the wound neatly, and cover with adhesive 
plaster. 

To Raise the Jugular Vein.— if blood is to be with- 
drawn, the jugular vein should be raised and opened by mak- 
ing an incision in its long axis ; insert and tie in a silk vein= 
tube, pointing it upward, for the purpose of draining the blood 
from the head and face. If it is desired to remove more 
blood than is contained in the head, withdraw the vein=tube, 
insert in the proximal end of the vein, and push it in until 
the end of the tube passes into the right auricle; tie the vein 
around the tube, attach the aspirator, and begin aspirating 
the blood as already directed. 

THE RADIAL ARTERY. 

Location. — The radial artery extends from the bifurcation 
of the brachial artery at the elbow to the palm, on the radial 
side of the arm. 

The Anatomical G-uide is the groove between the outer 
edge of the bone and the first prominent tendon of the flexor 
muscles of the hand and fingers, near the wrist=joint, where 



296 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

the physician takes the pulse=rate. When the hand and arm 
are extended as far back as possible, this groove is seen ex- 
tending from the wrist=joint to the elbow. The artery lies in 
the center of the groove, being superficial near the wrist- 
joint, becoming deeper in its course toward the elbow. It 
can be raised easily and no mistake will be made, as no other 
vessels accompany it, except the venre comites, which are too 
small to receive the radial arterial=tube. Its position makes 
it very convenient for the purpose, when the body is already 
dressed for burial. At the point where it is usually raised, it 
lies very superficial, being covered only by the skin, a thin 
layer of fat, and the superficial and deep fascia. 

To Raise the Artery, make an incision along the groove 
through the skin not more than an inch in length; remove 
the fat, cut through the fascia on the grooved-director with 
the sharp=pointed curved=bistoury, raise the vessels, open the 
sheath, and separate the vena? comites from the artery; make 
an incision through the wall of the artery in the direction 
of its long axis, insert the smallest arterial=tube, tie the artery 
around the tube, leaving the distal end open until fluid ap- 
pears, when it should be tied. After enough fluid has been 
injected, remove the arterial=tube, tie the artery, sew up the 
incision, and cover with adhesive plaster. 

THE POSTERIOR AND ANTERIOR TIBIAL ARTERIES. 

Either the posterior or anterior tibial artery may be raised 
for the injection of fluid, for the same reasons that are ad- 
vanced for using the radial. 

Location. — These Arteries extend from the lower border of 
the popliteal space, one along the posterior, and the other 
along the anterior, surface of the tibia. 

The Guide to the Posterior Tibial is the groove behind 
and below the inner malleolus (ankle). 

To Raise the Artery, the incision should begin on a level 
with the upper border of the ankle, and extend in a curved 
line around the border of the malleolus to a distance of 
about two inches. The fasciae will be found very thick for 



ARTERIAL EMBALMING 297 

the purpose of protection, as the vessel in this part of the 
body is exposed so greatly. After the fasciae are opened the 
artery will be found accompanied by the venae comites within 
its sheath. The artery and venae comites should separated, 
the artery raised upon the shank of the aneurism=needle, an 
incision made in the direction of the long axis with the 
curved=bistoury, the arterial=tube inserted, and the artery 
tied in the usual manner. 

The Guide to the Anterior Tibial is the outer edge of the 
front of the tibia ( shin=bone ) . 

To Raise the Artery, the incision through the skin should 
begin just above the instep and extend downward a couple of 
inches, the fasciae opened, and the tendons drawn to one side. 
The artery will be found close to the outer side of the bone. 
The vessels should be raised out of the cut, separated, the 
artery opened in the direction of its long axis, and the tube 
inserted and tied. 

THE AXILLARY ARTERY. 

The axillary artery is the extension of the sub=clavian 
artery down through the center of the axillary space. It 
begins at the outer border of the first rib and extends to the 
lower border of the axilla. 

The Linear Guide is a line drawn through the center from 
the upper to the lower border of the axillary space. 

To Raise the Axillary Artery an incision must be made 
on the above line through the skin superficial and deep 
fascia. The vein which is superficial at the lower point of 
the incision may be pushed to one side and the dissection 
continued through the deep fascia to the artery which lies 
beneath the vein between several branches of nerves. After 
separating the nerves, the artery may be raised in the usual 
manner. 

If blood is to be withdrawn, the vein may be opened and 
large drainage tube inserted, which should be long enough to 
reach throughout the entire length of the axillary and sub= 
clavian veins, which have valves along their course nearly to 
the bifurcation of the innominate. 



CHAPTEE XXI. 



CAVITY EMBALMING. 



NECESSITY FOR CAVITY EMBALMING. 

The embalmer cannot exclude cavity embalming and thor- 
oughly disinfect the body. The amount of fluid he injects 
through the arterial system is only sufficient to disinfect the 
tissues of the body; he cannot use a sufficient quantity to 
sterilize the contents of the different subdivisions of the 
cavities. The physician or anatomist, who er, balms for the 
purpose of dissection, can disinfect the body by injecting a 
very large amount of fluid into the arterial system. If the 
embalmer or funeral director were to inject the amount of 
fluid through the arteries that is necessary to disinfect all 
of the .morbid or effete matter, as well as the normal tissues 
of the body, the results would usually be disastrous — the 
features would be distorted, the body would appear un- 
natural in size, and the complexion would be materially 
changed, according to the quality or kind of chemicals used 
in the fluid. The embalmer can only inject a quantity equal 
to about one=twentieth of the weight of the body into the 
arterial system, while the anatomist can inject enormous 
quantities, as he does not care to preserve the features nor 
the natural color of the body. Therefore, for the embalmer, 
cavity embalming is a necessary adjunct to arterial em- 
balming. 

Disinfecting Effete Matter. — Abnormal material is 
found, as a rule, in the different serous sacs and in the 
alimentary canal, especially in the stomach and the intestines, 
and it is these parts that require special treatment. In 



CAVITY EMBALMING 299 

consumption, sometimes, a large quantity of abnormal mat- 
ter is found within the lungs themselves; this should receive 
treatment by the cavity method. The abnormal matter 
within the lungs, the material effused into the pleural sacs 
and peritoneum, and the effete material in the stomach and 
small and large intestines, cannot be reached by arterial em- 
balming, in the average=sized body, when only four or five 
quarts of fluid are used. The fluid reaches the walls of the 
pleural sacs, the peritoneum, the normal tissues of the lungs 
and the walls of the intestines, but a sufficient quantity does 
not pass into the contents of either to disinfect the effete or 
effused material. 

The only way that we have yet found to disinfect such 
matter is to inject a sufficient quantity of fluid directly into 
the material. This can be done by inserting a hollow=needle 
at a point from which we can operate without endangering 
the circulation. Any embalmer can do this if he understands 
the anatomy of the parts and knows the position of the aorta 
and its branches. Wounding the smallest subdivision of 
the arteries and capillaries of the circulation will not injure 
the arterial system sufficiently to prevent the disinfection 
of the tissues; it is the wouuding of the larger vessels that 
must be avoided, as this will allow sufficient leakage to pre- 
vent the fluid reaching all parts of the body. To inject the 
usual amount of fluid into the arteries will preserve, in many 
cases, but will not disinfect. To inject a large amount of 
fluid into the cavities will often preserve the body for the 
"usual length of time," but it will not disinfect the whole 
body. To thoroughly disinfect the body, fluid must be in- 
jected into every part, filling all the tissues and the abnormal 
and effete matter within the body. 

The operations of cavity embalming can be performed suc- 
cessfully only by an embalmer who understands the great 
cavities cf the trunk, the location of the visceral organs con- 
tained therein, and the great aorta and its branches. We 
will consider fi:-st the thoracic cavity. 



■MB 



300 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 



THE THORACIC CAVITY. 

Its Location and Contents. — The thoracic cavity is the 
smaller and upper cavity of the trunk. It is conoid in shape, 
is bounded at the base by the diaphragm, at the apex by the 




Thoracic and Abdominal Cavities, showing 
relative Position of Internal Organs. 



root of the neck, in front by the sternum, at the sides by the 
ribs, and behind by the vertebral column. It is divided into 
the right and left sides and the medium space, called the 






CAVITY EMBALMING 301 

mediastinum, in the center. The right side contains the 
right lung and pleura ; the left side, the left lung and pleura ; 
the mediastinum, the heart, pericardium, thoracic aorta, vena? 
cava?, trachea, gullet, and other vessels. 

The pleura? are shut, serous sacs, placed between the lungs 
and walls of the cavity. They are large enough for one side 
to envelope the entire surface of the lung, while the other 
is reflected over the walls of the cavity, which it lines. The 
spaces between the lungs and the walls of the thorax are 
within the pleural sac. These spaces are sometimes called 
pleural cavities; 

The pericardium is a shut, serous sac, which envelopes the 
heart. One wall of the sac is attached to the surface of the 
heart, while the other hangs loose. The space between the 
two walls is sometimes called the pericardial cavity. 

The serous sacs secrete a fluid called serum. It is of an 
oily character and moistens the surfaces of the sacs, so that 
while respiration and the heart's action continue, the sur- 
faces will glide over each other without friction. When 
these sacs become inflamed, effusions are poured out, filling 
them to a greater or less extent, making it necessary to re- 
move the effusion, or mix with it a sufficient quantity of 
fluid to sterilize it, as it forms a good soil for the development 
of bacteria. 

The heart lies diagonally across the mediastinal space, with 
the base toward the back and right side, into which it extends 
about one and a half inches, while the apex is directed toward 
the front and left side, into which it extends three and one= 
half inches. When in a normal position, the right auricle 
lies immediately back of the anterior margin of the third 
intercostal space, through which we direct the needle to reach 
the auricle, when withdrawing blood from the heart by the 
direct operation. 

The aorta begins at the left ventricle, extending upward 
an inch and a half or two inches, then arching over backward 
to the front and left of the center of the back=bone, to which 
it is attached, and extends downward in the same position 



■H 



302 CHAMPION TEXT HOOK ON EMBALMING 

through the diaphragm to the fourth lumbar vertebra. It 
is this vessel that is wounded usually in the direct operation 
upon the right auricle of the heart. 

The trachea descends from the neck down through the mid- 
dle space to the root of the lungs. The gullet is immediately 
behind the trachea, extending downward through the middle 
space and diaphragm to the stomach. Tin 1 superior and in- 
ferior venae cava' enter the right auricle, the former through 
the upper, and the latter through the lower wall, of the 
auricle. 

To Inject the Pleural Sacs.— The pleural sacs can be 
treated by inserting the needle at a point immediately over 
the stomach in the epigastric region and directing it upward 
and through the diaphragm near its upper border. To 
treat the right sac, the needle should be directed upward and 
to the right side through the diaphragm, pressing it down- 
ward over the lung to a point as near the back part of the 
sac ;ss possible. If the pleural sac contains effused matter, this 
can be pumped out and fluid injected. Enough fluid should 
be injected to sterilize the material that remains; this, how- 
ever, will be a matter of conjecture only. The left pleural 
sac should be treated in a similar manner, but the needle 
should be directed upward and to the left side. 

The pericardium can be reached from the same point by 
perforating the diaphragm at the lower border of the heart. 
The contents can be withdrawn and fluid injected. 

Fluid injected into these sacs does not preserve the visceral 
organs. It settles immediately to the back part, while the 
organs all lie to the front. Unless an unusual amount is 
injected, it will scarcely reach to the back part of the organs, 
as there is considerable space to the side and back of the lungs. 
If the lungs are attached to the front wall of the chest, it 
will be better to insert the needle between the ribs on either 
side, at a point four or five inches from the center of the 
l»i<ast=bone, as the operation from the epigastric region will 
necessitate the passing of the instrument through the lung, 



304 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

which might result in the rupturing of the nutrient vessels 
conveying the fluid, thus causing leakage. An infant=trocar 
is sufficiently large to reach the pleural sacs, when the opera- 
tion is made between the Hits. The effusion, if it is liquid, 
can be pumped out through the needle before the fluid is in- 
jected. The amount of fluid injected will depend, to a great 
extent, upon the judgment of the operator. 

To Inject Fluid into the Lung Cavities.— Cavities in 
the lungs result from tubercular disease These cavities may 
be filled with morbid material, such as purulent matter, or 
liroken=do\vn lung=tissue. The arteries leading to these cav- 
ities have been destroyed in the general destruction of the 
tissues during the disease. The ends of the vessels are filled 
with fibrous plugs. This is nature's method of preventing 
fatal hemorrhages in these cases. Indeed, in a majority of 
eases, no hemorrhage occurs during the long continuance of 
the disease. It is through the nutrient vessels of the lungs 
(the bronchial arteries) that fluid is conveyed into the nor- 
mal tissues of the lungs. When fluid is injected into the ar- 
terial system, it reaches the walls of the cavities through 
these vessels, but none enters the cavity to mix with its con- 
tents. It then becomes necessary to reach the contents of 
these cavities through the windpipe, which is composed of 
the larynx, trachea, and bronchi. The ends of the bronchi are 
not filled with fibrous plugs as are the arteries. Hence, fluid 
injected into the windpipe or respiratory tract will reach the 
cavities and their contents. 

Fluid injected into the mouth or nose will pass usually 
into the lungs, through the respiratory tract, but, iu some 
<;iscs, the glottis, or opening into the larynx, becomes closed 
by the epiglottis being forced down over the opening by the 
tongue, which has fallen back into the pharynx or throat. 
When this condition exists, it is best to use a strong, curved, 
inflexible nasal=tube; the best are made of steel, and are 
about ten or twelve inches in length. This can be passed 
down through the nose and pharynx to the lower margin of 



CAVITY EMBALMING 305 

the glottis, and the epiglottis be pulled upward and forward, 
opening the glottis, through which the end of the nasal=tube 
can be passed. When the nasal=tube has been passed into 
the larynx in this manner, fluid can be injected into the cav- 
ities of the lungs through the trachea and bronchi. A suf- 
ficient quantity should be injected to fill the cavities and the 
whole of the respiratory tract. 

If the operator does not succeed in introducing the nasal= 
tube into the larynx, he should introduce the infant=trocar 
into the trachea through the notch at the upper end of the 
sternum or breast=bone. It can be introduced easily at this 
point, and fluid can be injected in sufficient quantity to fill 
the cavities in the lungs. The needle should be directed 
straight back toward the vertebral column, until it passes 
through the front wall of the trachea. It is an easy matter 
to tell when the point is within the trachea, as the canal is 
nearly one inch in diameter. 

Gases in the Pleurae and Pericardium.— Gases fre- 
quently accumulate in the pleurae and pericardium, prior to 
the general putrefaction of the body. This is due to the 
presence of putrefactive bacteria in the abnormal matter so 
often found in them. These materials form very excellent 
soil for the development of bacteria, and, as soon as death 
takes place, they begin to grow in such numbers that gas is 
produced sometimes in great quantities, even sufficient to 
make pressure upon the large vessels in the mediastinum and 
right side of the heart, forcing the blood into the superficial 
veins and capillaries of the surface of the head, neck, and 
face, causing discoloration. Gas may develop early and 
rapidly, and pass out through the subcutaneous tissues to 
the cellular or fat tissue beneath the skin, causing swelling of 
the neck. When any of these results occur, the cavities 
should be treated at once, first removing the gas through the 
hollow=needle. 

THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY. 

Its Regions. — The abdominal cavity extends from the dia- 
phragm down to the margin of the pelvis. The front wall and 



CAVITY EMBALMING 307 

sides are formed by the transversalis fascia, lower ribs, and 
iliac, and the back wall, by the vertebral column. The ab- 
domen is divided, for the purpose of an easy understanding 
of the location of the different visceral organs contained 
within the cavity, by certain arbitrary transverse and per- 
pendicular lines, into nine regions. The two transverse lines 
are drawn from the ninth rib and the crest of the ilium 
respectively on one side to the same points on the opposite 
side. The two perpendicular lines are drawn, one on either 
side, from the anterior end of the eighth rib to the center of 
Poupart's ligament. 

These regions are named the right and left hypochondriac 
on either side, under the cartilages of the ribs ; the epigastric 
between them, in the middle, above the stomach ; the right and 
left lumbar on either side, between the lower margin of the 
ribs and the hip=bones; the umbilical between them, in the 
center; the right and left inguinal or iliac, on either side; 
and the hypogastric between them, in the middle of the 
lower part of the abdomen. 

Position of Its Contents. — The various visceral organs of 
the abdomen are located as follows : the liver in the right 
hypochondriac region ; the large end of the stomach and the 
spleen in the lift hypochondriac; the small end of the stomach 
across the epigastric region, just below the diaphragm ; the 
kidneys in the right and left lumbar regions; the small in- 
testine in the unbilical and hypogastric regions; the begin- 
ning of the large intestine and vermiform appendix in the 
right iliac region. The large intestine ascends through the 
right lumbar to the lower surface of the liver, then makes an 
abrupt turn, crossing transversely through the epigastric 
region to the spleen, where it makes an abrupt turn, passing- 
downward through the left lumbar region to the margin of 
the pelvis, throng]) which it passes to the anus. 

The peritoneum is a shut, serous sac, the back wall of which 
is attached to and covers the intestines and other visceral 



30S CHAM PI OX TEXT-HOOK ON EMBALMING 

organs, the front wall being deflected to the diaphragm and 
anterior wall of the abdomen, which it lines throughout. 
This sac secretes scrum for the purpose of oiling the surfaces, 
so that thcv will glide past each other without friction. The 
space between the front wall of the abdomen and the intes- 
tines is within the peritoneal sac, and is sometimes called 
the peritoneal cavity. 

The pelvis is a basin=like cavity, forming an outlet to the 
abdominal cavity. It contains the rectum, bladder, and in- 
ternal organs of generation. The bladder, when full, ex- 
tends into the abdomen. The womb, in the female, enlarges 
during pregnancy so as to extend into the abdominal cavity, 
which it nearly fills during the latter part of the term. 

Organs Requiring Special Treatment. — The organs 
within the abdominal cavity which require special treatment 
arc the stomach, small and large intestines, and the peritone- 
um, which extends well down into the pelvis in a cul=de=sac 
(known as Douglas' cul=de=sac). In the treatment of the 
organs of this cavity, it is necessary to avoid the multilation 
of the aorta and its larger branches. The operator should 
keep in mind the location of the abdominal aorta, and the 
gastric, splenic, hepatic, renal, mesenteric, and the iliac ar- 
teries. 

It becomes necessary, frequently, to insert the trocar into 
the stomach to let off the gas, pump out its contents, and 
inject fluid. The stomach lies near the diaphragm and can 
l»e reached with less danger to the large arteries from a point 
at the margin of the ribs on the left side, transversely across 
from the lower point of the breast=bone. The point of the 
needle should be directed downward and to the left side of 
the back=bone, until the front wall of the stomach is pierced. 
From this point, all other parts of the abdominal cavity can 
he reached through the cavity of the peritoneum. 

After the stomach has been treated, the needle should be 
turned downward and across, through the peritoneal sac, 
to the organs which require treatment. There is usually a 



CAVITY EMBALMING 309 

sufficient quantity of gas within the intestines to cause more 
or less distension of the abdominal walls. When this is 
the case, it is an easy matter to push a sharp=pointed in- 
strument through the wall of the intestines and remove the 
gas. 

The needle should not be removed, after the gas has escaped, 
until fluid has been injected into the intestinal canal. If the 
needle be removed after the gas escapes, it will be impossible 
to enter the canal subsequently, at the same point or in the 
vicinity, for the purpose of injecting fluid, as the walls of 
the canal will collapse. If fluid is injected into the peritoneal 
cavity, after all the gas has been removed, with the view of 
sterilizing the contents of the alimentary canal, the operation 
will be a failure, as fluid thus injected will settle downward 
through the tissues into the space beneath the intestines, and 
will not reach the fecal matter contained within the canal. 
Therefore, fluid should be injected into the intestinal canal 
after the gas has escaped, and before the needle has been re- 
moved, to succeed in mixing it with the contents for sterili- 
zation. In fact, whenever gas is removed from any part of 
the body, fluid should be injected before the needle is with- 
drawn, as it is not likely that the needle will subsequently 
enter the same space again. 

The pleural and pericardial sacs frequently contain effu- 
sions of a dropsical character, or as a result of inflammation. 
These effusions can be removed by introducing the needle 
at the same point in the epigastric region from which the 
stomach is treated. To remove effusions from the peritoneal 
sac, the needle can be passed downward from the same point 
through which the stomach was treated, the pump attached, 
and the effusions pumped out; or a point of entrance may 
be selected on the median line, above the pubic arch, and 
the fluid allowed to drain out through the drainage=tube or 
needle. 

The pelvis can be reached through either one of the outlets 
of the abdomen, through Hie perineum, or from a puncture 
through the abdominal wall above tin 1 pubic arch. 



310 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

THE STOMACH. 

The stomach, when in position, lies near the diaphragm, in 
the upper part of the abdominal cavity. It is an organ larger 
a1 one end than the other. The larger end is called the 
splenic end; the smaller, the pyloric end, or the pylorus. It 
is somewhat oval in shape, and curved upon itself with a 
large and small curvature. It will hold, when full, ordinar- 
ily, from three to five pints. But, as a result of disease, it 
will vary greatly in size, as for instance by dilatation or by 
contraction. 

Its Dilatation. — The following are some of the causes of 
dilatation of the stomach : (a) anything that will prevent the 
egress of the digested food into the duodenum, such as can- 
cer, affecting the pylorus, which may obstruct the duodenal 
opening by the formation of a hard scirrhus ring, or by the 
projection inward of fungoid growths; ( b ) the narrowing 
of the pylorus, caused by fibroid thickening, which takes place 
beneath the mucous membrane, or even thickening of the 
mucous membrane itself, or by a single ulcer near the py- 
lorus, or by the cicatrix of a healed ulcer; (c) pressure of 
tumors upon the pylorus or duodenum externally, preventing 
the contents of the stomach passing into the duodenum; ((/) 
displacement of the stomach by adhesions or by the pylorus 
being dragged down out of its usual place; (c) or, dilatation 
from paralysis, as a result of injury to the splanchnic nerves, 
etc. 

In cases of this kind, when the abdomen is laid open, the 
stomach is found to be greatly increased in size. Often it ap- 
pears to fill the whole abdominal cavity. The greater curva- 
ture will be below the umbilicus; in extreme cases it will be 
even as low as the pubes. When the stomach is opened, it 
is found filled, partially or wholly, with a dark fluid, the 
amount of which is sometimes enormous. The wrinkles are 
effaced entirely by the constant stretching, and the mucous 
membrane presents a level surface, which is generally more 



CAVITY EMBALMING 311 

or less softened by the acid contents after death. In cases 
in which the dilatation is very great, and the stomach is filled 
with enormous quantities of the material as described, there 
will be dilatation of the abdomen also. 

Its Contraction. — We sometimes have atrophy of the 
stomach. The walls become thin and smooth, especially the 
mucous membrane, which adheres to the adjacent coats. The 
size of the organ is materially diminished. Sometimes the 
stomach is collapsed by pressure, and is found in a position 
very high in the abdomen ; while at other times it is dragged 
downward by adhesions, and will be found in a position much 
lower than normal. 

It is not always easy for the embalmer to locate the organ, 
especially when it is nearly or entirely empty. It will be an 
easy matter to puncture the stomach with the hollow=needle, 
if dilated either chronically or by gases formed within. 
But, if small and collapsed and pressed up against the dia- 
phragm, there will be no certainty in the operation through 
the abdominal wall, although in about ninety=five per cent, 
of the cases, it can be punctured by inserting the needle im- 
mediately over the normal location. Remember, this should 
be done near the margin of the ribs on the left side, at a 
point transversely across from the tip of the breast=bone. 
The stomach should always be punctured, as well as the small 
and large intestines, to relieve the pressure formed by gases, 
to prevent purging. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



CRANIAL EMBALMING— SO=CALLED NEEDLE PROCESSES. 



THE EYE PROCESS. 

Embalming by the needle process was first introduced by 
the late Benjamin Ward Richardson, of London, England, in 
1884. He introduced a small needle through the inner can- 
thus of the eye, and passed it along the inner wall to the 
point of the socket, through one of the foramina in that part 
of the orbit, into the spaces beneath the brain, called the 
subarachnoid spaces, through which he injected fluid into the 
circulation. 

In 1801, F. A. Sullivan, who was then teaching embalm- 
ing in this country, taught the eve process, and claimed it 
as his own method, giving no credit whatever to Dr. Richard- 
son, to whom all credit for the so=called needle processes 
should be accorded. 

The Operation. — The body should be placed in an elevated 
position on the embalming board. A small embalming-needle, 
about six inches in length, known as the eye=trocar, should 
lie introduced at the inner corner of the eye, directing its 
course along the inner wall of the orbit, through the small 
foramen at the point of the socket, into the cranial cavity, 
to a distance of about four or live inches. The injejtor 
should be attached to the needle, and the injection should 
be begun very slowly and without force. After a few min- 
utes the rapidity can be slightly increased. From two to 
four pints can be injected in this manner, in from twenty to 
thirty minutes. 

The only objection to this method is, that an accident may 
occur if too much force is used at the beginning of the opera- 
tion, or, if the needle is withdrawn too soon, fluid may re- 
gurgitate and fill the loose tissues behind the eye and push 



CRANIAL EMBALMING 313 

if forward. If this result should obtain, it is no serious mat- 
ter, as the fluid will disappear after a short period of time, 
by absorption and gravitation, and allow the eye to settle 
back into its place. To prevent such a result, however, be 
careful to inject slowly and use the least force at the begin- 
ning of the injection, and after the injection is finished, allow 
the needle to remain in position for a period of five to ten 
minutes before removal. Do not lower the body until after 
the needle is removed. 

This method includes all the science that there is in em- 
balming through the cerebrospinal cavity. 
THE BARNES PROCESS. 

The introduction of the needle through the foramen mag- 
num into the cerebral cavity was recommended by Dr. Barnes, 
of Chicago, in 1893. When the needle is thus introduced, it 
reaches the subarachnoid spaces from the back part, while 
by the eye process it reaches them through the front part. 
When fluid is introduced by the needle, therefore, whether 
through the foramen magnum or through the orbit, it reaches 
the same spaces, and is distributed to the tissues of the body, 
in precisely the same manner. 

The Operation. — To introduce the needle through the 
foramen magnum, it is necessary to incline the head to one 
side ; then bend it downward to the chest ; draw a line from 
the angle of the lower jaw, straight around the neck, and a 
second line from the mastoid process to the center of the 
clavicle or collarbone; the lines will cross just back of, and 
a little below, the lobe of the ear. Introduce the needle on 
the first line one inch behind the point where the second line 
crosses the first, directing the needle upward and inward 
toward the opposite eyebrow, when the needle will enter the 
cavity. 

Dr. Barnes claims that this method of introducing the 
needle constitutes the most scientific process of embalming 
that lias been introduced since 1 embalming began. Whether 
it does or not, we will not question. 



oil 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 




THE NASAL PROCESS. 

The introduction of the needle through the cribriform plate 
of the ethmoid or sieve bone at the root of the nose can be ac- 
complished as readily and easily as by either of the other 
methods. It can be passed through, also at the suture between 
the ethmoid and sphenoid bones, a 
little distance back of the sieve 
bone. At either point but little 
pressure will be required, and, 
when the needle penetrates the 
cranial cavity, it will reach the 
same space as when introduced 
through either the orbit or the 
foramen magnum. This method 
requires no special position of the 
head or of the body, and any 
amount of force that the operator 
may exert can be used in injecting 
the fluid; it will neither bulge the 
eye nor disfigure in any other manner. 

The Operation.— Place the body upon the embalming 
board in the usual position. Introduce the needle through 
either one of the anterior nares, directing' it upward between 
the turbinated bones and along the side of the septum until 
it reaches the sphenoid bone, which is back of the ethmoid; 
then bring the point of the needle forward, pressing slightly 
against the bone, and when it reaches the suture between 
these bones it will pass through readily; or, bring it still 
further forward, when it will reach the cribriform plate of 
the ethmoid bone, through which it will pass with ease. 
After the needle is introduced in this manner, the injector 
should be attached and fluid injected. 

The fluid will pass into the circulation as readily, when 
introduced in this manner, as it will by either of the methods 
before mentioned: distribution of fluid is just the same. It 
passes into the subarachnoid spaces, filling the area between 



Fig. 44. Section of Nose. 
Showing inclination of trocar 
in the Nasal Process. 



CRANIAL EMBALMING 315 

the coverings of the brain and spinal cord. The fluid reaches 
the vascular system by exudation through the walls of the 
smallest arteries, veins, and capillaries in the coverings of 
the brain and spinal cord, especially the pia mater or vascular 
membrane. A portion of the fluid may pass into the sinuses 
through the walls. We have injected, in this manner, two 
quarts of fluid in eighteen minutes; in another case, a pint 
in a minute and a half; in another, a pint in three minutes. 
In some cases, a large amount of fluid can be injected; in 
others, a small amount ; and, in still others, none at all. 

The results obtained by these processes are not constant ; 
therefore, we would not recommend any one of the needle 
processes to take the place of arterial embalming. As an 
auxiliary, they certainly have their place among other methods 
of embalming. In giving the treatment for special cases, we 
point out where the needle processes can be used to advantage. 

EMBALMING THROUGH SOFT TISSUES ON OUTSIDE OF 
SKELETON. 

In some cases, on account of the mutilation or destruction 
of the arteries, it is impossible to inject fluid through the 
arterial system into the tissues of the body. It is true, in 
many cases, that arteries that are mutilated may be tied and 
fluid injected just as well as if no mutilation existed, but in 
cases of extensive mutilation from accident, and in post= 
mortem cases, there will be leakage, on account of the an- 
astomoses, that it is impossible to control. To preserve these 
parts, therefore, it becomes necessary to introduce fluid into 
the tissues through other channels than the arteries. 

The Operation. — The fluid can be injected directly into 
the parts through a hollow=needle. The needle that is em- 
ployed in treating the cavities, or the infant=trocar, can be 
used for this purpose. The needle should be inserted in the 
top of the upper center of the part which it is desired to 
treat, passing it through the skin into the cellular tissue 
beneath, when the fluid can be injected verv easily. The 



316 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

needle should be passed over the upper surface of all the 
tissues that require fluid, pointing it iu all directions, and 
injecting sufficient fluid to sterilize the tissues beneath. To 
preserve the upper extremities, the needle can be inserted 
through the skin on the top of the arm aud fore=arm, at a 
number of points between the wrist and shoulder. The lower 
extremities and the trunk can be treated in a similar manner. 

Fluid thus injected will settle downward through the tis- 
sues by gravitation. Large amounts of fluid can be injected 
in this way. In an average=sized body, in which the cellular 
tissue was filled to a considerable extent with gas, we have 
injected three gallons of fluid by this method. 

In the treatment of "floaters/' the injection of fluid into 
tiie subcutaneous tissues is very essential. The fluid intro- 
duced thus will destroy the bacteria within the tissues, and 
the needle, as well as the perforation through the skin after 
the needle is removed, forms an exit through which the gas 
will pass out more rapidly. 

If the face and neck are iu a natural condition, when the 
arteries of the trunk have been destroyed extensively, as in a 
postmortem case, or as the result of an accident, do not 
inject fluid under the skin in these parts, but use one of the 
needle processes. After the fluid appears at the open end of 
the veins and arteries, showing* that the. blood is all washed 
out, a cord may be tied tightly around the root of the neck, 
which will strangulate the vessels so that fluid may be in- 
jected in sufficient quantity to fill the capillaries of the head, 
face, and neck, which will preserve the parts and retain their 
nal ural appearance. 

The embalmer should be acquainted with all the methods 
of introducing fluid into the tissues, so that, when called to 
a case, he will be ready to use whatever method is necessary, 
in that particular case, to preserve and disinfect the body. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



REMOVAL OF THE BLOOD. 



Reasons for Its Removal— Blood should be removed 
from the venous side of the vascular system, for several 
reasons. This removal will relieve congestion of the super- 
ficial or peripheral vessels of the head, face, and neck, in a 
body that is full of blood, thereby removing the discolora- 
tion. It will free the tissues from an excess of blood, which 
is a material in which putrefaction takes place quickly, de- 
creasing the chance of preservation, and giving rise to post= 
mortem discoloration and post=mortem staining. 

It is not necessary to withdraw blood in all cases, but it is 
certainly a good practice to withdraw it whenever it can be 
done. The greater -the quantity of blood extracted from the 
body, the less likelihood there will be of discolorations and 
early putrefaction. More blood can be withdrawn, and the 
most satisfactory results will follow, if the operation of with- 
drawal of blood is performed alternately with that of the 
injection of fluid into the arteries, whether the withdrawal 
be by the direct operation upon the heart or through one of 
the veins. 

The Methods of removing tliG blood from the body are 
three: first, by the direct operation upon the heart; second, 
by aspiration through the basilic vein; third, by drainage 
through the femoral or jugular vein. 

From the Heart Direct. — To remove blood from the heart 
direct, a cardiac-needle and an aspirator are required. An 
ordinary hollow=needle or trocar may be used, but the cardiac= 
needle is better, as it is less likely to become closed by clots. 
It should be very sharp, six or more inches in length, and 
of fair caliber. The arrow=pointed and diamond-pointed 



REMOVAL OF THE BLOOD 319 

needles are excellent for the purpose, as they will pass 
directly through the heart, without a tendency to turn to 
one side, as is likely to be the case with the pen=pointed 
needle. 




Fig. 46. Front View of the Thorax. 
The ribs and sternum are represented in relation to the lungs, heart, and other 
internal organs. M, mitral valve ; T, tricuspid valve : A. aortic semilunar vaives : 
P, pulmonary semilunar valves ; x> point for introduction of needle in the direct 
operation. 

To reach the right auricle of the heart, the needle should 
be introduced at a point immediately to the right of the mar- 
gin of the breast-bone, in the third intercostal space, which 
will be found in the adult about four inches below the upper 
end of the breast=bone. (See Fig. 46.) The needle should 



320 CHAMPION TEXT-HOOK OX EMBALMING 

be directed backward toward the right of the center of the 
backbone, to the depth of aboul four inches, or until the 
P° m1 of ,I|( ' i"' ( '<U<' touches the spinal column, when it will 
have entered the righl auricle. Never direct the point toward 
I] "' center, much less to the left side of the center of the 
backbone. The surface of the front part of the body of the 
dorsal vertebra is round, and, if the point of the needle should 
be pushed through the auricle, it would strike the vertebra 
■'""I be deflected to the left and pierce the thoracic aorta 
which lies in front, and to the left, of the center of the back- 
bone, to which it is attached. To wound the aorta thus 
would be to lestroy the circulation. Therefore, it is very 
important to give the needle its proper inclination. 

In many cases, especially if one has had experience in tap- 
ping the; heart in this manner, it is possible to determine 
when the needle passes through the wall of the auricle, but 
it is not the case at all times. When it is the case, the needle 
need not be pushed so deep as to wound the aorta. But 
there is no certainty, and we should not rely on imaginary 
depth alone. 

The needle can be pushed through to the right side of the 
backbone, or entirely to the back wall of the cavity on the 
right side of the backbone, without injury to the circula- 
tion, and then be withdrawn again until the slotted portion 
of i he needle is found to be in the cavity of the auricle. This 
is indicated by blood appearing in the vacuum in the bottle, 
when the pump is operated. It matters not if the needle 
passes entirely through the auricle, which it will do if it is 
pushed against the right front of the backbone, as only a 
little blood will escape, which will amount to nothing. If 
blood does escape in this manner, it can be pumped from the 
mediastinal space, if found necessary. 

After the needle has been introduced, place the body high 
on the incline atid raise the arms over the head, for the pur- 
pose of gravitating the blood toward the heart; attach the 
aspirator and withdraw the needle slowly and carefully a 



REMOVAL OF THE BLOOD 321 

short distan.ee until the slotted portion enters the cavity, 
when blood will begin to flow. Allow the needle to remain 
in this position as long as the flow continues ; when it ceases, 
push the needle in a little farther, then withdraw it again 
to its former position, which operation will aid in the re- 
moval of clots — if there are any — in the slots of the instru- 
ment. 

To remove the blood from the lower extremities, the posi- 
tion of the body must be reversed, as blood can only be re- 
moved from the body by the aid of gravitation, or while 
the mouth of the tube, or the point of the needle, is im- 
mersed in the fluid. The cavities of the heart are not filled 
by the pressure of the air, as is the vacuum produced in the 
common pump, but by the force of gravity. 

When the heart is emptied, and no more blood can be with- 
drawn, the injection of fluid through the artery should begin, 
and an amount of fluid equal to or greater than the amount of 
blood withdrawn, should be injected; then more blood should 
be pumped from the heart, and fluid injected into the artery 
alternately, until sufficient fluid is injected to fill the capil- 
laries. 

Another Method. — The needle may be introduced through 
the anterior wall of the abdomen, at the point through which 
the cavities are injected, and directed upward toward the 
heart through the diaphragm and into the right ventricle. 
By this operation, blood can be withdrawn just as well as 
from the right auricle, but there is greater danger of wound- 
ing the aorta or the valves at the aortic opening. Moreover, 
as the heart is rather pendulous in its position, it is easily 
moved to the right or left of its usual location, and thus 'the 
puncturing of the right ventricle is made more uncertain. 

Too much care cannot be exercised in the introduction of 
the needle, because of the large vessels that are found in this 
region. To wound the aorta, or any of the largo arteries, 
is to destroy the circulation, so that fluid cannot reach the 



32:2 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

tissues of the body through these channels. Therefore on ac- 
count of the great danger of destroying the circulation, this 
method of piercing the heart is not recommended. 

Through the Basilic Vein. — To remove the blood through 
the basilic vein, will require an aspirator and a silk vein- 
tube, of proper caliber to enter the vein, and long enough to 
reach the innominate vein. This method of removing the 
blood is made use of, generally, when the brachial artery is 
raised, Raise and incise the vein as already directed; in- 
sert the vein-tube, and pass it through until the end of the 
tube reaches the innominate vein; then tie the vein around 
the tube, attach the pump and begin the aspiration of blood. 
Remove all the blood that is possible ; then begin the injection 
of fluid, and continue alternately aspirating blood and in- 
jecting fluid until no more blood can be removed. 

It makes no difference which basilic vein is used. It is 
true the curve is more gradual in the left than in the right, 
but if the right is used, the tube will enter the innominate 
vein just as well. 

Through the Femoral Vein. — To remove the blood 
through the femoral vein, there will be needed a drainage- 
tube, or silk vein-tube, of sufficient length to reach above 
Poupart's ligament as far as the common iliac, and allow 
six or eight inches to remain out of the wound, so that the 
blood can be directed into a conveniently-placed vessel. It 
should be of large caliber, say No. 14 or No. 1G in size, and 
twelve to fifteen inches in length. The advantage of with- 
drawing blood through the femoral vein, besides the con- 
venience in raising it at the same time the femoral artery is 
raised, is that by its use pumping the blood is not usually 
required. There are no valves in the ascending vena cava, 
or in the common iliac vein, to prevent the flow of the blood 
from the heart, and if the blood is sufficiently thin to run, 
and there are no clots intervening, it will pass out through 
the draining-tube by gravitation, and by the pressure upon 



REMOVAL OF THE BLOOD 323 

the peripheral veins of the fluid that is being injected, at the 
same time, through the artery. The body should be placed 
on a high incline, say from forty to fifty degrees. The arms 
may be held in an upright position by an assistant, when 
blood will begin to flow. Then commence the injection of 
the fluid through the femoral artery. As the fluid begins to 
press upon the tissues and capillaries, the blood will flow 
more freely, and the use of the aspirator will not be required 
— that is, if the blood is perfectly thin or liquid. 

If the blood is thick, or if it is full of coagula, it may be 
necessary to attach the aspirator. But, in the great majority 
of cases, if the body is placed high enough on the incline, the 
aspirator will not be necessary. 

Through the Jugular Vein. — if the common carotid is 
raised, the internal jugular may be used for the purpose of 
withdrawing the blood. By inserting the tube into the 
jugular vein toward the base of the skull, the blood will 
drain out. If the tube is turned and entered toward the 
heart, the aspirator will have to be used. 

Every operator should be prepared to withdraw blood 
either by the direct method from the heart, or through a 
vein, because he will fail sometimes in one operation and 
may be successful in the other. Therefore, if the basilic vein 
is raised, and the operator fails to get blood, he should try 
the direct operation upon the heart; or, if he should fail by 
the direct operation, he should then raise the basilic or some 
other vein, and endeavor to withdraw blood. 

Sometimes the heart may be lying in an abnormal position, 
and it will be impossible to withdraw blood from the right 
auriclei by the direct operation; in such a case, it will be 
necessary to use one of the veins. 

The direct operation through the third intercostal space is 
the simplest and quickest method of withdrawing blood from 
the body. If the directions for introducing the needle are 
followed carefullv, there will be no danger of wounding or 



324 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

mutilating' the arterial system, and as much blood can be 
withdrawn in this manner as through either of the veins. 

Circulation Not Destroyed by Tapping the Heart — 
Objection lias been made to the direct operation on the heart, 
by some embalmers, who raise the point that the circulation 
is destroyed thereby, and that arterial embalming, therefore, 
would be noneffective. The point is not well taken. The 
right auricle being the only part wounded, the fluid would 
have to make the entire circuit of the circulatory system be- 
fore it could escape from the wound. (See "Circulation of 
Fluid," page 279.) The valves of the heart act just the 
same after death as before. During life they prevent the 
backward How of the blood, and after death they prevent, 
the flow of the fluid into the heart. Therefore, fluid does 
not enter the left cavities of the heart at all, unless the aortic 
valves are injured or destroyed; nor does it enter the right- 
cavities unless it has made the entire circuit of the systemic 
circulation; that is, at least, through the coronary vessels. 

However, the heart may be occupying abnormal position, 
as a result of effusion into one of the pleural sacs, or some 
other disease. In this case the left side of the heart (or 
the aorta, for that matter) may be injured by the needle. 
Injury even to the left auricle or left ventricle would not 
destroy the circulation sufficiently to interfere with arterial 
embalming, unless the aortic valves were destroyed. Wound- 
ing the aorta, as already stated, would destroy the circula- 
tion of fluid. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



DISCOLORATIONS AND THEIR REMOVAL. 



Discolorations take place in all bodies sooner or later 
after death, as a result of putrefactive or other changes. 
The surface of the body becomes changed to a deep=green 
color, due to putrefaction; or it may become a dark=blue 
color, owing to the blood settling into certain parts; or it 
may become flushed, due to the injection of fluid into the 
arteries before they are empty, or to the injection of a vein 
instead of an artery. It matters not what the cause may be, 
the desire of the embalmer is to remove these discolorations 
from the parts that are exposed to view when it can be done. 
These exposed parts may be involved to a greater or less ex- 
tent; the whole surface of the body may be discolored, or a 
mere spot may be changed. The head, neck, and face may 
be of a dark=bluish color, resulting from the position of the 
body after death, the head being allowed to lie lower or 
more dependent than the trunk, causing the blood to gravi- 
tate towards it. The same discolorations of the surface will 
result from the forming of gases in the thoracic and abdomi- 
nal cavities in such quantities as to cause pressure upon the 
large veins and right side of the heart, sufficient to force 
the blood into the head, face, and neck. The capillaries and 
small vessels in the skin and subcutaneous tissues in these 
parts are very greatly distended with the venous blood, 
causing the dark=bluish discolorations. 

Venous Congestion. — The body should be placed on a. 
high inclined position, and blood should be withdrawn by 
one of the methods described in the previous chapter. If 
the discoloration is caused by the pressure of gas within the 
thoracic and abdominal cavities, the gas should be removed 
at once, and the body allowed to remain on the incline, until 

32.5 



326 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

all the blood will have gravitated to the trunk and dependent 
portions of the body. 

If the blood is less fluid than normal, thus interfering with 
its passage through the veins, or if it has become coagulated 
in the large vessels and right side of the heart, and still re- 
mains fluid in the peripheral veins and capillaries, it may be 
aided in its gravitation by spreading a damp cloth over the 
face and rubbing the hand downward over the surface toward 
the heart. This should be continued for some length of 
lime, or, until the discoloration entirely disappears. The 
cloth will protect the surface, preventing the skin from slip- 
ping-, which occurs in some cases when the hand is rubbed 
over the bare surface. 

If the above method fails, place a mixture of fine ice and 
salt over the surface, with a thin cloth intervening between 
the ice and skin, and wrap the whole with a woolen blanket 
el- cloth to exclude the air and external heat; allow the mix- 
ture to remain until the surface is frozen from one=eighth 
to one=fourth of an inch in depth. Cold retards or prevents 
the coagulation of blood, and if the surface is frozeu, it 
removes the blood from the surface by pressure. (For "Ice 
Mixture" see page 328.) Never make use of hot applica- 
tions, as they increase the tendency of the blood to coagulate, 
and will in no way assist in its removal. It is said that the 
needle operations aid in removing blood when other means 
fail. No doubt, good results will follow their use if the 
blood is not firmly coagulated, but if it is, they can do no 
good, as blood that has become thoroughly coagulated in the 
vessels, cannot be removed by any means that are known. 

If the blood is firmly coagulated iu the small veins and 
capillaries of the surface, there is nothing that will remove 
the discoloration. In time, it will be modified, becoming of 
a reddish cast, and finally of a dull=red color, owing to the 
escape by transudation through the tissues of the carbonic 
acid gas in the blood ; the hemoglobin or coloring matter of 
the blood remains, which gives .it the reddish appearance. 



DISCOLORATION S AND THEIR REMOVAL 327 

Cold applications, hot applications, rubbing the surface, or 
working with it in any manner, will have no effect upon the 
discoloration after the blood is coagulated firmly in the capil- 
laries. In many cases of discoloration, the results of treat- 
ment are very unsatisfactory. 

Even when the blood is quite thin and is carried down- 
ward by gravitation, the rims of the ears, in many cases, 
will remain full of blood, presenting the usual discoloration. 
An instrument, known as the leecher, has been recommended 
for its removal, by scarifying the posterior surface of the 
ear and removing the blood by suction. The operation is 
scarcely necessary for the reason that, if the rim of the ear 
is turned upward, the blood will gravitate through the ves- 
sels and enter the larger veins at the base of the ear and be 
carried off by gravitation. 

"Flushing of the Face." — Discoloration caused by the 
injection of an artery when it is full of blood, or the injection 
of a vein by mistake for an artery, usually cannot be re- 
moved. If the flush is noticed at once, before the capillaries 
are dilated to a great extent — there not having been much 
blood forced into them — it will be possible to remove it 
by withdrawing the blood through the vessel through which 
the injection has taken place. This may be aided by pres- 
sure upon the surface, and rubbing with the hand. If the 
capillaries are distended fully, by the injection of sufficient 
fluid to fill the vessels thoroughly, and the fluid has been 
allowed to remain for some length of time, it will be impossi- 
ble to remove the flush ; the effect can only be modified by 
the use of powder or tints. 

Post-Mortem Discoloration, or Hypostasis, is due to 
the presence of blood near the surface in the back and de- 
pendent parts of the body, especially of the trunk. The 
blood remains in the vessels which are filled to distension, 
and is not transuded into the surrounding tissues as in 
bruises and ecchymoses. This discoloration can be removed 
only by turning the body upon the face, when the blood will 
gravitate to the front part of the body or trunk. This 



328 CHAM PI OX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

method, however, is never practised, as its removal is not 
necessary, the hack part of the body not being exposed to 
view. It is only when the discolorations appear on the 
fingers or rims of the ears that it becomes necessary to re- 
move them. This can he done by raising the rim of tin- ear 
and elevating- the ends of the fingers, when the blood will 
gravitate to other parts. 

Post-Mortem Staining is a bright-red discoloration, 
which is seen frequently along the course of the superficial 
veins over the ventral region and extremities and sometimes 
in the face. This takes place usually about eight or ten 
hours after death. It is due to putrefactive or other changes 
t lint take place in the blood. The red corpuscles being re- 
duced, the hemoglobin is eliminated into the liquor sanguinis, 
or watery portion of the blood, where it is dissolved thor- 
oughly, when it passes out through the walls of the capillaries 
and vessels into the surrounding tissues, producing a con- 
tinuous bright=red color, which can be seen through the skin. 
The hemoglobin, or red coloring matter of the blood, is a 
permanent color and cannot be removed by any bleaching 
process that is known. It is just as impossible to remove 
post-mortem staining as it is to remove the normal color of 
the negro's skin. 

Brownish or Greenish Spots, which appear occasionally 
under tin 1 eyes, along the nose, and at the corners of the 
mouth, are caused, usually, by putrefactive changes in the 
blood=vessels and capillaries, or by destruction of the cir- 
culation in the part, due to embolism in young people and 
atheroma in old peojfle, either of which prevents the fluid 
from reaching the parts. These spots may be removed by 
injecting hypodermically a bleeching solution, using just 
enough fluid to reach the circumference of the discoloration. 

Bruises and Ecchymoses are spots caused by blood exu- 
dations, due to rupture of the capillaries near the surface. 
The walls of the capillaries being destroyed, tin 1 blood passes 
out into the tissues and no channels remain through which 



DISCOLORATION 8 AND THEIR REMOVAL 329 

the blood can gravitate to the dependent parts. These parts 
are usually of a dark=blue color, but after a time they will 
change to a dull=red color, due to the transudation of the 
.carbonic acid gas that the venous blood contains. Spots of 
this kind may be covered with flesh=tints ; they cannot be 
removed by the application of bleachers. 

Discoloration Caused by Biliverdin usually takes place 
during life. It is caused by the blood taking up the bile in 
the liver, when the usual channel of exit is obstructed, and 
carrying it to the tissues of the body. It stains all the tis- 
sues, including the skin and conjunctiva (mucous membrane 
of the eye) a yellowish or brownish color. A similar dis- 
coloration will result in certain diseases, such as Bright's 
disease, cancer, consumption, etc., or may be due to chemical 
changes in the pigment or tissues of the skin itself. These 
stainings cannot be removed; the color is permanent and un- 
bleachable. The injection of a good bleaching fluid through 
the arteries sometimes will modify the appearance, but will 
not remove the discoloration entirely. The best effect can be 
secured by placing the body, after it has been embalmed thor- 
oughly, in a darkened room, and have artificial light reflected 
upon it. If this is done properly the case can be made to 
look almost perfectly natural in color and appearance. 

Bleachers and Fluids Not Effective.— So-called bleach- 
ers and fluids, used on the face in the usual manner, serve no 
purpose whatever, unless it be to destroy odors. Fluid thus 
placed on the outside of the body does not penetrate or pass 
into the tissues. The skin is a very compact tissue, and, if 
penetration should take place at all, it would be very slowly. 
Tissues of the body are composed of about two=thirds water 
and one=third solid matter. The air on the outside of tli > 
body is much dryer than the tissues of the body, even when 
the humidity is great. The air, therefore, takes up the 
moisture, leaving the chemicals within the meshes of the 



330 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

cloth, absorbent cotton, or linetine, or upon the surface of the 
body, none of the chemicals having penetrated through the 
skin into tissues beneath. 

To make the application of fluids or bleachers effective at 
all, they should be covered with rubber, oiled silk, or some 
other fabric which is impervious to air. But even then, ab- 
sorption would take place so slowly that its effect would be 
very limited. 

It is advisable not to apply fluids or bleachers upon the out- 
side of the body, as they will do little, if any, good, while 
they have a tendency to soil the clothing and other fine fabrics 
which may be placed upon or around the body. 

The Ice Mixture. — The following is the formula for re- 
moving discoloration by the blood when it is not coagulated 
firmly in the capillaries and small superficial veins: 

I£ Finely powdered ice three parts. 

Common salt one part. 

Mix. 

Place the mixture about two inches thick, between two 
thin muslin cloths, and apply to the affected part; then cover 
with a blanket or thick towels to exclude the air. The ap- 
plication can be removed in from two to four hours, or when 
the discoloration has disappeared. 



CHAPTER XXV. 



OASES: THEIR PRODUCTION AND ELIMINATION 



An erroneous idea prevails among a great majority of em- 
balmers as to the production and elimination of gases that are 
found in the body after death. It is supposed by them that 
these gases are produced by some chemical reaction, and that 
they are destroyed by the fluids that are used for the preser- 
vation and disinfection of the body. 

What They Are. — First, what are these gases? They are 
merely some of the elements of which the body is composed, 
set free by the action of the putrefactive bacteria, and re- 
combined in the form of sulphurated hydrogen, carbonic acid, 
ammonia, etc. They are not destroyed by the fluid that is 
injected for the purpose of preservation and disinfection ; the 
fluid only destroys the odor. During their production, the 
gases transude rapidly through the tissues into the cellular 
tissue beneath the skin, and slowly through the skin itself, 
which causes the body to swell in proportion of the amount 
of gas produced. If the production of these gases is stopped, 
in time they will be eliminated from the body by the above 
process. 

Where Found. — Gases may be found in the peritoneal cav- 
ity, for instance, from several causes ; first, escape from the 
alimentary canal through a perforation in the peritoneal 
wall; second, transudation through the intestinal wall into 
the peritoneum ; third, decomposition of materials within the 
peritoneal sac. Gas may be found in all parts of the periton- 
eal cavity, or it may be limited to a small space by the ad- 
hesion of the walls of the peritoneum. More or less gas is 
always found in the alimentary canal. It may be found 
in the small intestine in small quantities, or in the large in 



332 CHAM PIO X TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

testine alone. There may be an amount in the large intestine 
sufficient to distend the walls of the abdominal cavity to their 
greatest extent. 

Gases arc produced within the thoracic cavity, especially in- 
the pleural and pericardial sacs, due to the decomposition of 
their abnormal contents, as when they are filled with more 
or less solid, semisolid, or liquid matter. Gases are formed 
sometimes within the lungs, the result of putrefaction of the 
lung substance, as in cases of pneumonia, tuberculosis, gan- 
grene, etc. 

Gas may be formed in the pelvic cavity, or in the spaces be- 
hind the peritoneum in the abdominal cavity, as a result of 
decomposition, or the presence of a large amount of purulent 
matter in abscesses, or in the subperitoneal, connective tissue. 
Gas may lie formed in the bladder, resulting from decomposi- 
tion of material within it, sufficient to distend the abdominal 
walls. 

If gases are present in these several locations, and are still 
being developed without interference, they will transude 
through the tissues, finally getting into the fatty or 
cellular tissue, especially the layer between the skin and 
superficial fascia, bloating the body, as is seen in the 
"floater/' or in any other body in which putrefaction has 
been going on for some time. 

HOW Eliminated. — As stated before, these gases are not 
destroyed by the introduction of fluid into the body — it is 
impossible to destroy them with anything. Rut, by the in- 
jection of fluid into the parts affected, the putrefactive bac- 
teria are destroyed and no more gas is produced. Fluid 
injected into the arteries will not reach the contents of the 
several cavities of the organs mentioned; it only reaches the 
walls of the cavities which are filled with capillaries. The 
morbid material contained within these several cavities can 
only be reached by the hollow=needle, through which the 
gases can escape and sufficient fluid be injected to sterilize 
the contents thoroughly. Fluid is mixed with the contents 
of these cavities for the purpose, as stated before, of destroy- 
ing the bacteria which are present, and to assist in the elimi- 



GASES: THEIR PRODUCTION AND ELIMINATION 333 

nation of the gas by the direct connection of the cavity with 
the surface of the body through the opening made by the 
needle. Gases that are not eliminated in this manner 
transude through the deeper tissues into the cellular tissue, 
thence slowly through the skin itself, until finally the body 
will be reduced to its normal size. The elimination of gas 
through the skin can be assisted greatly by making a number 
of punctures through the skin over the parts which are swol- 
len. 

Odors that accompany the gases eliminated from the body 
should be destroyed by deodorizers. Most of the fluids that 
are sold for the purpose of preserving and disinfecting the 
body will also destroy the odors that accompany the gases. 

PURGING AND ITS TREATMENT- 
The definition of purging is a diarrhea or dysentery ; preter- 
natural evacuation of the intestines; looseness of the bowels. 
Purging also means to cleanse, clean, or purify, by separating 
or carrying off whatever is impure, heterogeneous, foreign, 
or superfluous. The term, as understood by the embalmer, 
also includes the after=death evacuation from the mouth and 
nose, and it is this phase which more especially interests 
him. 

There are two kinds of purging from the mouth and nose. 
One comes from the stomach through the upper end of the ali- 
mentary canal, and the other comes from the lungs through 
the respiratory tract. The purge from the former is a brown- 
ish, coffee=ground=like material, while that from the latter 
is a bloody, frothy mixture. 

Purging from the Stomach. — In purging from the stom- 
ach, the contents, which consist largely of animal and vege- 
table matter, undergo a chemical or putrefactive change, 
liquifying the substance, and producing gas. The gas thus 
produced finally distends the walls of the stomach and makes 
its escape through the gullet, mouth, and nose. At (lie same 
time gases are produced in the intestines by the putrefactive 



334 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

changes taking place in the contents, especially in the large 
intestine. The gas thus formed fills the intestines, dilating 
the canal sufficiently to till the entire abdominal cavity, press- 
ing the stomach against the diaphragm with enough force to 
cause the contents to escape through the upper end of the 
alimentary canal. The purged matter has a very strong and 
peculiar odor. At times the quantity is enormous, and, un- 
less the gas be removed, the clothing and everything around 
the body will be soiled, and a very unpleasant odor will 
permeate the room. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of a case of purging from 
the stomach, it is necessary to remove the gas from both the 
stomach and intestines. The hollo w=needle should be intro- 
duced into the stomach through the abdominal wall at a 
point in the epigastrium over that organ. The point of the 
needle should be directed to the left side of the baek=bone 
at such a distance that it will not wound the great aorta. 
The gas should be allowed to escape through the needle and 
rubber tubing into a bottle containing fluid which will destroy 
the odor. After all the gas has escaped from the stomach, 
and before the needle is removed, fluid should be injected, as 
frequently it will be impossible to enter that organ again with 
the needle. Then the needle should be withdrawn and 
directed downward through the space between the peritoneal 
walls and through the wall of the large intestine, from which 
the gas will escape through the needle. Before the needle is 
withdrawn, inject fluid in sufficient quantity to sterilize the 
contents of the intestines. Gas should be removed from all 
parts of the abdominal cavity. The operator should always 
bear in mind that when gas escapes fluid should be injected 
before the removal of the needle. When the gas is removed 
and fluid injected, as directed, no further purging will 
follow. 

Purging from the Lungs. — Purging of a red, frothy char- 
acter, through the respiratory tract, comes from the lungs. 
Sometimes, in a case of drowning, it is produced by the pres- 
ence of bacteria, which can easily be checked by the intro- 



GASES: THEIR PRODUCTION AND ELIMINATION 335 

Auction of fluid into the lungs, through the respiratory tract. 
In case of consumption, it will give way immediately on the 
injection of fluid directly through the windpipe, but in cases 
Df pneumonia in the second stage, it frequently becomes very 
obstinate. The reason for this obstinacy is that no fluid 
cah reach the diseased lung, either through the nutrient ar- 
teries, or by way of the respiratory tract. The lung, having 
filled the entire side of the cavity of the thorax, making 
pressure upon the arteries and capillaries of the nutrient cir- 
culation and upon the bronchi, which are filled to a certain 
extent by a bloody mucous, renders it impossible for fluid 
to enter the diseased portion of the lung. This being the 
case, the bacteria of putrefaction will begin to develop sooner 
or later within the diseased portion of the lung, causing 
liquefication of the lung substance and the formation of gas. 
The gas will force the liquefied matter, with more or less 
froth, which is in the bronchi of the normal portion, out 
through the respiratory tract, and it will finally appear at 
the mouth and nose as bloody, frothy purge. 

Treatment. — The usual methods of treatment, that have 
been recommended, are the turning of the body over and 
making pressure over the chest and up against the diaphragm 
to force this matter from the cavity, and then to inject fluid 
into the respiratory tract; to repeat this a number of times, 
if the case be obstinate ; also, to close up the respiratory tract, 
in order to keep the purge from passing out through the 
windpipe, either by introducing cotton or some other sub- 
stance into the glottis, or by tying a tape around the wind- 
pipe. 

Such treatment is not successful, as it will not arrest the 
growth of bacteria in the lungs, and consequently will not 
stop the production of gas. If the gas cannot pass out 
through the respiratory tract it will transude through the 
tissues into the cellular or fat tissue beneath the skin, caus- 



336 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

iiiii a swelling of the surface in the neck and upper portion 
of the body. The bacteria must be destroyed to stop the 
production of gas. To accomplish this, the portion of the 
lung which is involved should be mutilated with the knife, 
which should be passed through the front wall of the chest 
between the iil»s into the diseased lung; then the hollow= 
needle should be introduced, and fluid injected into all parts 
of the diseased lung. This can be doUe a few hours after the 
body has been embalmed without destroying the effects of 
arterial embalming. 

Usually such treatment is successful. If all parts are not 
reached and gas is still formed, it will pass out through the 
openings made by the knife and hollow-needle. If necessary, 
the treatment can be repeated in the course of a few hours. 



PART THIRD. 



MORBID ANATOMY AND TREATMENT OF SPECIAL 
DISEASES. 



INTRODUCTION TO PART THIRD. 



Morbid (or Pathological) Anatomy treats of the changes produced by 
disease in the solids and fluids of the body, as in the tissues, skin, blood, 
secretions, etc. It also shows what effusions are to be found in the several 
cavities — as blood-serum, purulent matter, etc. — and the effects wrought 
on the various organs. 

The morbid changes which take place in the different organs and tissues, 
as a result of the many diseases that human flesh is heir to, are scarcely 
understood by the embalmer. In many cases his knowledge of the real 
condition is very slight indeed. There is nothing more essential in the 
practise of embalming than to understand which organs and tissues are 
affected, and what are their condition at death. 

In Part Third we have endeavored to place before our readers, in as 
plain language as possible, the morbid anatomy of certain diseases, with 
the proper mode of treatment of the body dying from each. Only the most 
important diseases, and those whose treatment is likely to give the em- 
balmei the most trouble, are thus considered. 

We show which organs and tissues are affected by complication and 
otherwise, so that the embalmer may know where to look for, and how to 
reach, all diseased tissues, for the purpose of destroying the bacteria of in- 
fection and putrefaction, and of preserving the parts, and thereby have no 
"failures." 

These diseases are considered under a somewhat arbitrary, though more 
or less logical, classification. In the first class are included diseases which 
affect the circulation in such a manner as to make it impossible or difficult 
to get a good arterial circulation of fluid, some of which conditions are 
present in various other diseases, the description of which follow. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE VASCULAR SYSTEM. 



DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES WEAKENING THE WALLS AND 
CAUSING ANEURISMS. 

To fully understand this subject, it is very important, in 
studying the morbid process to which arteries are subject, 
to keep in mind the following anatomical facts : the blood= 
stream, as it passes through the arteries, glides over the 
surface of the endothelium (the layer of the flattened cells) ; 
outside of this layer is the tunica intima, composed of elastic 
tissue in longitudinal arrangement; the endothelium and the 
tunica intima together constitute the internal coat; still more 
external is the middle or muscular coat, composed of a 
fibrous arrangement in circular, triangular, and longitudinal 
manner, and, in the larger arteries, mixed with elastic tissue ; 
outside of all is the external coat, consisting of longitudinal, 
fibrilated, connective tissue. 

Acute inflammation of the artery affects only a limited 
portion of the vessel, and leads occasionally to ulceration. 
In some cases, this has arisen from the irritation caused by 
an embolus (clot), which, becoming detached from the 
cardiac valve, has blocked a distant artery. Sometimes there 
will be softening and swelling of the arterial coats in cir- 
cumscribed spots, which become flabby and inelastic, and 
ultimately bulge outward and form aneurisms. This condi- 
tion is the great cause of aneurism in hard=working young 
men. 

Chronic inflammation of the arteries is so infrequent that 
it is scarcely worth, noticing, unless as a precursor of the 
disease known as atheroma. 

Atheromatous disease is met with oftener than any other, 
and is much more serious. It presents three tolerably well= 
defined stages. In the first stage, if the vessel is slit open, 



340 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EM HALVING 

grayish patches, which thicken the lining membrane, are 
not iced. These patches seem to lie on the surface of the mem- 
brane, but this appearance is deceptive. They lie underneath 
the endothelium, which is not affected at all in the beginning 
of the morbid process. Indeed, the material of which the 
patches are formed is really situated external to the tunica 
intima, between that and the middle coat. It is half car- 
tilaginous in consistence, and is formed by the rapid, abnor- 
mal multiplication of the deep cells of the tunica intima, the 
new growth pushing up this tunic with its endothelium on the 
inner side, and so causing the bulging into the interior of the 
vessel. It seems to be in the nature of an inflammatory change 
— that is, it consists in the throwing out of cellular elements 
in consequence of some influence which lias excited them to 
unnatural growth. 

In the second stage, the cellular elements, of which the new 
growth is composed, undergo the process of fatty degenera- 
tion, and, in consequence, become yellowish in appearance 
and pasty in consistence. It was the paste=like appearance 
of the mass that gained for it the designation of atheroma 
i meal). In this stage, it frequently happens that the whole 
of the internal coat with its endothelium is involved in the 
softening, and gives way under the pressure of the blood, 
leaving an excavation, the contents being literally washed 
out. The floor of this excavation is formed by the middle 
and external coats of the artery. When this is the case, the 

bl 1 insinuates itself between the coats of the vessel, which, 

being weakened by the removal of the internal coat, yields 
to the pressure of blood, and a sacculated aneurism is origi- 
nated. Cerebral vessels, probably on account of the thin- 
ness of the walls, are liable to rupture when they are the seat 
of aneurisms. Sometimes, the diseased coronary artery has 
given away, tilling the pericardium with blood. 

Occasionally, however, the pasty mass, instead of being 
washed away, becomes the seat of calciferous (lime) deposits. 
This is known as the third stage. The appearance of the ves- 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE VASCULAR SYSTEM 341 

sel, in which the atheromatous disease has reached this stage, 
is very striking. Plates, which present to the naked eye the 
appearance, but do not show the structure of bone, are ob- 
served at intervals in the walls of the vessel, with their sharp 
points projecting into the interior of the vessel. In the aorta 
it is not uncommon to find such plates an inch long and half 
an inch broad, and in the smaller arteries the calcific matter 
forms a ring around the vessel. In the latter the calcareous 
particles appear to be deposited in the patch while it is still 
firm, so that the second stage is not marked. 

Atheromatous disease sometimes invades the aorta, while 
the small vessels are not affected ; or, on the other hand, the 
small vessels may be the seat of the calcific change and the 
large vessels be healtlw. Occasionally, the disease is limited 
to a few vessels. Next to the aorta, the arteries of the lower- 
extremities are prone to this form of arteritis (inflammation 
of the arteries). The dangers to which an atheromatous 
state of the vessels exposes a person in whom it exists are 
various. The stream of blood is retarded by the projection 
of the new growth into the vessel, and still more by the de- 
struction of the elasticity of its coats. Hence, the failure 
in the nutrition of the organ, which depends for its supply 
of blood on the diseased vessel, will follow. This is said to 
be the cause of cerebral softening. 

Arteries have been occluded completely by the deposit of 
fibrin on the spiculated edges of the calcareous plates. This 
is one of the causes of senile gangrene. The plugging of dis- 
tant vessels by emboli, at times, results from the detachment 
of such fibrinous clots and the washing away of the athero- 
matous material. Rigidity of the larger arteries, from the 
atheromatous change, is likewise one of the most frequent 
muses of hypertrophy (enlargement) of the left ventricle of 
the heart, in which increased work is caused by the destruc- 
tion of the elasticity of the vessels. Anasarca of the lower 
extremities may occur in elderly men from the plugging of 
the vessels, or it may result from dilatation and weakening 
of the left ventricle, thereby weakening the blood=current. 



342 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

When a number of these atheromatous spots have washed 
out, the distant vessels may till up with debris, which has a 
yellow ish=white appearance, causing occlusion sufficient to 
prevent the flow of fluid. In one case, in following up a 
dissection, it was noticed that a number of points in the aorta 
were diseased in this manner. One dissecting aneurism was 
present, while other points seemed to have been washed out. 
In some rare cases of dropsy there have been noticed a sub- 
stance composed of white plates in the arteries in sufficient 
quantity to impede the flow of fluid. This is due, presumably, 
to the separation of the solid and semisolid portions of the 
blood from the liquor sanguinis, hemoglobin being absent. 
It is a grayish=white color. This has been mistaken, by 
sonic, for the atheromatous deposits. 

Treatment.- -The use of great force in the injection of 
fluid, in cases of this kind, may produce disastrous results. 
If it is kept in mind that the aorta is the vessel most fre- 
quently diseased, and that the injection of fluid can be accom- 
plished with very little force, the results will be satisfactory, 
provided the aneurisms that are present are not burst. If 
undue pressure is use, these aneurisms, or weakened walls of 
the vessel, will undoubtedly give way, when it will be impos- 
sible to fill the arteries and capillaries. In a case where such 
results obtain, fluid must be injected beneath the skin into 
the cellular tissue in all parts of the body. Fill the cavities 
thoroughly. Treated in this manner, preservation and disin- 
fection can be accomplished. 

DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS AFFECTING 
THE CIRCULATION. 

In the embalment of a body it is not always easy to get an 
arterial circulation ; in fact, in a number of cases, it is im- 
possible to get an arterial circulation at all. It is not al- 
ways owing to the contraction of the arteries, or to the 
presence of blood=clot, but is frequently the result of disease 
of I lie heart, arteries, veins, or capillaries. 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE VASCULAR SYSTEM 343 

First, the heart is liable to organic disease, either of its 
propelling muscular walls, its regulating valves, or its con- 
trolling nervous system. It will be found that disease of any 
of these parts of the cardiac apparatus, affects its several 
functions. Thus, disease of the walls of the heart affects the 
force or pressure ; disease of the valves disturbs the distribu- 
tion or quantiy of blood in the several parts of the circulation. 

Second, disease of the arteries interferes with the quantity 
of blood transmitted through them, and produces disturb- 
ances of distribution or pressure. 

Third, when the capillary walls are degenerated or rup- 
tured, or their channels are blocked as a result of embolism or 
thrombosis in the arteries or veins, nutrition is disturbed in 
various ways. 

Lastly, the veins may be the seat of a variety of lesions, 
which prevent the return of blood and lead to hemorrhage or 
dropsy. 

The pressure of blood within the circulation may be either 
increased or diminished, or irregularly distributed. The most 
marked instance of increased pressure is seen in simple hyper- 
trophy of the left ventricle without valvular disease, especi- 
ally if the hypertrophy be associated with increased periph- 
eral resistance, as observed in chronic Bright's disease. In 
the arteries there is fullness, elongation, thickening, and 
atheroma, with their results. The pulse is full and strong, 
and the capillaries- are distended and may be ruptured, hem- 
orrhage being the result. 

Diminished pressure of the circulation is more common, 
and is seen in dilatation, with thickening of the cardiac walls, 
and in atrophy, with fatty degeneration. The effects of di- 
minished pressure within the circulation generally are the 
reverse of those of increased pressure : the arteries are com- 
paratively empty and small ; the pulse is weak, small, and ir- 
regular; the cavities are supplied insufficiently with blood; 
the surfaces are anemic, or passively congested ; and the vari- 
ous functions are discharged feebly; the backward pressure 
within the veins, on the contrary, is increased ; the blood tends 



344 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

to accumulate within them ; the walls arc dilated; the valves 
arc disorganized ; and passive congestion, thrombosis, dropsy, 
and chronic inflammation are the frequent results. 

The quantity of blood distributed in hypertrophy of the 

heart is large, while in atrophy the quantity is less and the 
pulse is wiery. The most frequent disturbance observed is ir- 
regularity of distribution. This condition generally affects 
the pressure and quantity together, and may affect the one 
more than the other. Irregular distribution of blood and 
pressure is present more markedly in valvular imperfection, 
and is seen also in obstruction of the arteries, and other al- 
lied conditions, especially of the aorta. In the parts of the 
circulation and in the organs situated behind the seat, of the 
disease, irregularity of the distribution of blood and of pres- 
sure is a manifested form of dilatation, such as enlargement 
and engorgement of the heart, congested and associated 
changes of the lungs and abdominal viscera, of hemorrhage, 
and of various exudations and effusions, whether as edema, 
dropsy, or catarrh. On the other hand, the portions of the 
circulatory apparatus beyond the seat of the disease are un- 
derfilled and undersized. The organs are, deprived of a suf- 
ficient supply of blood, and anemia, with its further conse- 
quences, is the result. 

In cases of hypertrophy without valvular disease, accom- 
panied by disease of the arteries, capillaries, and veins, there 
is liable to be ecchymoses ( blood=spots i on the surface. These 
discolorations are the result of the blood breaking through 
the walls of the capillaries into the cellular and connective 
tissues, producing bluish or reddish spots. 

Treatment. — In case of thinness of the Avails of the heart 
and of the arteries and capillaries, we are liable to have rup- 
ture during the injection of fluid. Therefore, in all cases, and 
in case of the aged especially, fluid should be injected very 
slowly and without force, as, frequently, if force is used, 
rupture will follow, and the entire destruction of the circu- 
latory flow of fluid will result. Indeed, in some cases, it will 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE VASCULAR SYSTEM 345 

be impossible to inject fluid through the arteries with suffi- 
cient force to reach the capillaries iu the tissues, without 
causing rupture. In cases of rupture resulting from the in- 
jection of fluid, and in those cases where sufficient force can- 
not he used to reach the capillaries, the fluid should be in- 
jected into the tissues direct through the hollow=needle. The 
cavities can be treated m the usual manner. Ecchyinoses can- 
uot be removed by bleachers applied to the surface, or by hy- 
podermic injections. If they appear on the parts that are 
exposed to view, as the face, neck, and backs of the hands, 
they should be covered with flesh tints, or powder. 

VALVULAR DISEASES OF THE HEART. 

Valvular lesions of the heart are situated, generally, in the 
left side, at the mitral and aortic openings. Lesions on the 
right side are comparatively rare. The valves are frequently 
thickened and contracted ; or, they may be encumbered simply 
with vegetations of greater or less size, without being inca- 
pacitated for the performance of their functions. Sometimes 
they are rendered more or less rigid by the deposit of cal- 
careous matter. The aortic and mitral valves may become en- 
larged and thickened sufficiently to almost close the orifices ; 
or the} T may become atrophied, rendering them liable to rup- 
ture or perforation. Enlargement of the heart follows either 
of the above conditions. When the aortic valve is diseased 
sufficiently to interfere with, or prevent, perfect closure of 
the aortic orifice, fluid, when injected into the arteries, will 
enter the left side of the heart ; and, in tapping the heart, if 
the left side he perforated by the trocar, a partial destruction 
of the circulation will result, and the fluid will fail to perme- 
ate a part, at least, of the tissues. The lungs may become in- 
volved, resulting in edema, hemorrhages, or pulmonary apo- 
plexy. Dropsy of the serous sacs, or general dropsy, may be 
present. Death may have been caused by heart failure or by 
apoplexy. The face and upper surfaces of the body are con- 
gest ed and edematous, rendering the removal of blood neces- 
sarv. 



34(5 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Treatment. — When the semilunar valve, which guards the 
aortic opening, is diseased in such a manner as to prevent the 
closure of the orifice, fluid, when injected into the arterial sys- 
tem, will pass into the left ventricle. If the mitral valve, 
which guards the opening between the left auricle and left 
ventricle, is diseased at the same time, the fluid will pass on 
into the left auricle. In withdrawing blood from the heart by 
the direct operation; when the above valves are diseased, 
great care should be taken not to wound the left side of the 
heart If the septum between the right and left sides of the 
heart is wounded, the circulation of fluid will be destroyed. 

A less dangerous method of withdrawing blood from the 
heart, under these circumstances would be through the basilic 
or the femoral vein, as the heart may be moved out of its nor- 
mal position by an effusion into one or the other pleural sac; 
for instance, if the heart be forced a little to the right side by 
an effusion into the left pleural sac, it would cause the oper- 
ator, if not aware of the abnormal position, to wound the left 
side. Death may have been caused by asphyxia, due to edema 
of the glottis, hydropericardium, or pulmonary congestion, 
resulting in congestion of the face and neck, on account of 
which the blood must be removed at once. 

Dropsical effusions almost always occur in valvular disease 
of the heart ; sometimes they are limited to .the serous cavities 
only, but more frequently anasarca, or general dropsy, is the 
result. The water should be removed from the serous cavities 
by the use of the aspirator, and from the cellular tissue, espe- 
cially in the extremities, by the rubber bandage; then fluid, 
containing a. little formalin, should be injected into the arter- 
ies in sufficient quantity to fill the capillaries of the skin, 
which will harden the pigment layer, preventing "skin slip." 
The cavities should be tilled in the usual manner. Fluid 
should be injected into the lungs through the respiratory 
tract; then place the body upon the level with the head 
slightly elevated. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 
INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 



SCARLATINA— SCARLET FEVER. 

Scarlet fever is an acute infectious disease. Infection with 
the specific scarlatinal poison occurs almost always by con- 
tagion, which takes place very readily. There seems to be no 
doubt that the disease is transmitted by objects which the pa- 
tient has touched, such as linen, clothing, furniture, toys, etc. 
Even persons who have been with the sick may be the means 
of transmitting the disease, the poison, having attached itself 
to the meshes of the garments while moist, will be detached 
easily on becoming dry, and be received through one of the 
various channels by those coming into contact. In England it 
has been thought that the contagion might be carried by milk. 

Scarlatinal poison is destroyed with great difficulty. It 
keeps its contagious powers for months. In some cases it is 
very hard to point out the source of the contagion. The te- 
nacity of the scarlatinal poison may well explain the reason. 
The disease may be communicated as late as the end of the 
desquamative period. The details as to the manner of con- 
tagion are yet unknown. Statements have been made repeat- 
edly about the presence of bacteria in the blood and in the 
tissues of scarlet fever patients, but the specific poison of 
scarlet fever has probably never been observed, though the 
disease has been repeatedly produced in healthy persons 
through inoculation. 

The predisposition to scarlet fever is far less usual than to 
measles or smallpox. Frequently, where there are several 
children in the family, only one or two are sick, while the rest 
escape, although equally exposed. The liability to the disease 



348 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

is greatly diminished as age increases, although adults arc 
sometimes affected. Between the ages of two and ten years is 
the period when the majority of the patients arc affected. It 
is very rare in the first year of life. Children with fresh 
wounds, either accidental or surgical, especially are liable to 
scarlet fever. One attack of the disease renders the person 
immune, as very few arc attacked a second time, so that after 
the disease is over, an immunity from contagion is enjoyed, 
but there are exceptions to this rule. 

Scarlet fever is met with in every part, of the globe. Spo- 
radic cases in the large towns are found at almost all times, 
while in the autumn, from time to time, there are more or less 
extensive epidemics in one place or another. There is con- 
siderable variation in the different epidemics of scarlet fever. 
Sometimes it prevails in a very mild form, with few deaths, 
and at other times ll prevails in a more severe and grave form, 
and many deaths result. 

This disease being contagious, especially among children of 
the ages of two to ten years, children of that age should be 
kept away from the patient. The patient should be isolated, 
and all persons, except the nurse, should be kepi out of the 
room. Indeed, the nurse should not be allowed to come in 
contact with others, as the poison which is liable to attach 
itself to the clothing, hair, hands, and underneath the nails 
of th<> nurse, are liable to be the source of contagion. We 
might say that there are cases of so=called puerperal scar- 
latina, resulting from the entrance into the system of the 
scarlatinal poison through the excoriations or wounds caused 
by the passage of the child through the female genital organs. 
In these cases following childbirth, death may result, and 
carelessly the scarlatina may be overlooked, supposing it to 
be a case of septicemia. In cases of septicemia there is an 
eruption on the surface, due to the septicemic condition. 
Therefore, the scarlatinal eruption may be mistaken for the 
eruption of septicemia. If there is any doubt, be very care- 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 349 

ful not to expose any one to the contagion. To be on the. 
safe side, treat the case as one of scarlatina. 

The kidneys are affected frequently in scarlatina, and this 
is usually a dangerous complication. Ordinarily, there is 
found in the urine a tract of albumen, and in rare cases the 
quantity of albumen may be considerable. There is a 
changed appearance of the urine in some cases, and the mic- 
roscope reveals but few abnormal constituents. In genuine 
scarlatina, nephritis rarely ever developes before the end of 
the second week or the beginning of the third. Sometimes 
it begins even later. It may follow the severest case or the 
mildest. The severity of the disease seems, therefore, not to 
be essential. In case of nephritis, general dropsy follows, and 
frequently death occurs. It may occur from extensive 
ascites, or hydrothorax, or it may result from uremic poison- 
ing. In some cases cardiac failure may be strongly devel- 
oped. 

Treatment. — In cases dying after desquamation has al- 
ready taken place, if the body is treated properly, and the 
room thoroughly fumigated, there will be no danger in ex- 
posing the body ; it need only be known as a case of Bright' s 
disease or acute nephritis. The body may be shipped with- 
out danger to others, without the usual means of protection 
required in cases of infectious diseases. Of course, if des- 
quamation is not complete, it must be treated precisely as 
a case dying earlier in the disease. 

Cases dying before desquamation should be embalmed thor- 
oughly, as all infectious cases should be, not for the purpose 
of exposing them to view, but as a sanitary measure. As 
stated above, the bacteria are very tenacious and hard to 
destroy. From experience and investigation we know that 
these bacteria will resist the effects of water, cold, freezing, 
earth, etc., retaining the power of development for a long 
period of time. To place a body dying from scarlatina in the 
ground without first destroying these bacteria, or scarlatinal 
poison, exposes future generations to a source of dissemina- 
tion, at least. 



350 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



In preparing the body, first remove the clothing, rendering 
the body nude. Inject fluid into the arteries until sufficient 
has been injected to fill the capillaries thoroughly; fill the 
cavities thoroughly; fill the cavities and external openings; 
wash the body with hot water and soap, and also with strong 
disinfectant fluid. Allow the body to remain upon the board ; 
close and seal all the doors and windows, making the com- 
partment as nearly air-tight as possible; then disinfect the 
room by the use of formaldehyde gas. After thorough dis- 
infection, dress the body and place in the coffin or casket, and 
remove for burial. If it is to be shipped, follow the rule 
adopted by the General Baggage Masters' Association in pre- 
paring bodies for shipment. 

DIPHTHERIA. 
Diphtheria is an acute infectious disease, caused by an in- 
fectious bacillus. It is highly contagious, and the malignant 
form is a very grave disease, with a high mortality rate. It 
is principally a disease of childhood, 
although no age is entirely exempt. 
Occasionally an adult becomes in- 
fected. It is characterized by a 
false=membrane in the throat, nose, 
and other parts of the mucous sur- 
faces. The fauces are usually the 
only parts covered with the false 
lembrane. Although a constitu- 
tional disease, the morbid changes 
are apparently not very great. 

The disease is endemic in our large 
cities, and, at certain periods of the 
year, becomes epidemic. Diphtheria 
seems to have increased in our large 
cities in the last few years, while other contagious diseases 
have diminished. The disease seems to be specially virulent 
in country districts where it has prevailed. 




Bacillus Diphtheriae, from col- 
ony upon nu agar plate. 24 
hours "lil. X 1000. From a 
photo micrograph by Frankel 
and Pfeiffer. 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 351 

Diphtheria is highly contagious, and readily communicated 
from one person to another. The bacilli may be received 
from the false membrane or discharges from the patient; 
from the secretions from the nose and throat of convalescents, 
in which virulent bacilli persist; from healthy persons who 
have been in contact with others having virulent germs on 
their persons or clothing. 

Diphtheria is specially fatal to physicians and nurses, and 
may be to the embalm er, if due care is not exercised. The 
particularly dangerous period to the physicians or nurse is 
while examining and swabbing the throat, for the patient 
may cough mucus and pieces of the false membrane into 
the face and mouth of the physician or nurse. The virus is 
found in the room of the patient, and is hard to remove ; it 
also attaches itself to the bedding and clothing. Osier says : 
"A majority of the cases die of faucial or laryngeal disease. 
The exudation may occur in the mouth and cover the inner 
surfaces of the cheeks ; it may extend beyond the lips on to 
the skin." 

The exudation varies in amount in different cases. The 
tonsils and pillars of the fauces are covered with pale mem- 
brane. In fatal cases the exudation is much more extensive, 
involving the uvula, the soft palate, the posterior nares, and 
the pharynx. The parts are covered with a dense false mem- 
brane, which adheres firmly in places, and in others begins 
to separate. In the most severe cases there is a gangrenous 
condition of the parts. The false membrane is of a gray or 
dirty=greenish color. There may be sloughing of the tonsils 
and palate, and the erosions may be deep enough in the 
tonsils to open the carotid artery, or a false aneurism may be 
produced in the deep tissues of the neck. The nose may be 
filled completely by the false membrane, which may extend 
through the Eustachian tube into the middle ear and into the 
conjunctiva. 

In cases where the larynx becomes involved — so=called 
laryngeal diphtheria — the pharyngeal exudation may be very 



352 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

extensive, but in many cases it is slight upon the tonsils and 
fauces, and abundant upon the epiglottis and the largnx, 
which may be (dosed entirely by the pseudomembrane. The 
exudation may extend into the trachea and into the larger 
bronchi. The lymphatic glands of the neck are enlarged, 
and there is general infiltration of the tissues; the salivary 
glands may be enlarged. The false membrane extends, in 
rare instances, to the esophagus and the stomach. While 
the infectious or diphtheretic bacilli are limited to the false 
membrane, the whole body is impregnated with a virulent 
poison. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of diphtheretic cases the 
embalmer should be extremely careful. The blood is very 
poisonous, and, if he should wound himself, or receive the 
least particle of the blood through an abrasion, death would 
result most likely from blood poisoning. Therefore, in hand- 
ling or operating' on these cases, the embalmer should wear 
gloves, or some other protection should be used on the hands 
to cover abrasions; these may exist without the knowledge 
of the operator. lie should also dress himself in a suit of 
old clothes — a suit used only in handling infected bodies. 
He should cover his head with a rubber cap, and also wear a 
rubber coat fitting closely around the neck and reaching to 
the feet. Rubber, having no meshes, can be cleaned easily. 

The body should be undressed and placed upon the board; 
then washed with a solution of bichlorid of mercury, and a 
strong disinfecting fluid should be injected in the nose and 
month, tilling the trachea and lungs. Raise an artery at 
some convenient point and fill the tissues with fluid. Inject 
about one pint of fluid for every twenty pounds of weight 
of the body — that is, if a body weighs 150 to 100 pounds, in- 
ject at least one gallon of fluid to fill the capillaries, rather 
more than less than that quantitv. Remember that the tis- 
sues must be tilled to insure disinfection. After injecting the 
arteries, till the cavities thoroughly. Then inject again into 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 353 

the nose, mouth, throat, and lungs, and fill all the openings 
of the body with pledgets of absorbent cotton soaked in fluid. 
The room should now be closed tightlj and disinfected thor- 
oughly with formaldehyde gas or sulphur fumes. After the 
room and body have been disinfected in this manner, the 
body may be dressed for burial. If the body is to be shipped, 
it should be wrapped in cotton at least one inch in thickness, 
protected by a roller or many=tailed bandage, and the whole 
wrapped in a sheet wet with a strong solution of mercuric 
chlorid, and then placed in' a hermetically=sealed coffin, 
casket, or box. 

TYPHOID FEVER. 

Typhoid fever is an acute infectious disease, caused by the 
presence of the typhoid bacilli. They are found in the alimen- 
tary canal, principally in the lower part of the small intestine. 

If death results early in the ^#9*^*IUte#fcJU 

disease, the body will not be gS|| %i>^^^M^^^^rf^ 
much emaciated; the pallor will J^'j^'%*®"£ ®Wlg^*i^ : "V/^f 
not be so great on account of the ^0-9--t^j^^^^^^i^l^<f 
thickness of the blood, caused by S^Sfe®^#?£#¥' * ®5i!fp 
excessive perspiration and diar- $&9$-Z 
rhea, and the bluish color of the 
tissue, resulting from the loss of 
the liquid portion of the blood. 
The body, at this stage, will not 
be hard to preserve; rigor mor- 
tis being well marked, it will FiCT 48 

keep USiially, Without the USe Of Seetiou through wall of intestine 

showing invasion bv typhoid bacilli, X 

fluid, for two or three days in fl50 (Baumgarten). 
ordinary weather ; but the body should be disinfected as one 
dying in a later stage, on account of the presence of the 
typhoid bacilli. 

If death occurs later in the disease, say at any time after 
three or four weeks, the pallor will be much greater. Rigor 



354 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



mortis will not be so well marked. In fact, it will come on 
and pass oft", when the body is extremely emaciated- within 
the hour. 

In cutting down into the different cavities of the body, the 
tissues will be found light in color, the blood very thin, and 

there will be a hypostatic con- 
gestion in both lungs; the pos- 
terior part of the lungs will be 
quite solid. Hypostatic conges- 
tion will be found in the de- 
pendent parts of the body, even 
before death. The small intes- 
tine will be found to be denuded 
of mucous membrane in patches 
two or three inches in length. 
Peyer's patches and the solitary 
glands will be sloughed off and 
cleansed, showing deep ulcera- 
tion. 

In many cases the contents of 
the small intestine will be of a 
pea=soup=like-green material, filled with typhoid bacilli and 
putrefactive bacteria. This matter is very poisonous; if the 
least particle is taken into the stomach, it will produce the 
disease. A very small quantity of this matter may get into 
the clothing, and, when it becomes dry and is brushed off, it 
may be carried by the air and deposited on such material as 
is taken into the stomach, such as cold food or the water we 
drink; therefore, it is very necessary to be extremely care- 
ful in handling bodies of this kind. 

The ulcerations may be deep enough to have perforated the 
walls of the intestines, and the contents, containing more or 
less undigested food, may be found in the peritoneal cavity ; 
the spleen may be found from two to five times its usual 
size, or its capsule may have burst, and a great quantity of 
blood may have escaped into the peritoneal sac. The kid- 




Bacillus Typhi Abdominalis (Typhus \>; 
eillus), from single gelatin colony, X 100( 
From a photomicrograph by Sternberg. 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 355 

neys and liver may be found affected more or less ; the large 
and small intestines will be filled with gas in all cases. 

Treatment. — When the embalmer is called to embalm a 
case dying from typhoid fever, it is not only his duty to pre- 
serve the case, but to disinfect it thoroughly. If the body is to 
be shipped, it must be disinfected to meet the requirements 
of the shipping authorities of this country, and must be pre- 
pared specially, according to the rules adopted by the General 
Baggage Masters' Association. 

It is necessary to disinfect the body, even if it is not to be 
shipped, for the protection of the community. If a public- 
funeral is to be held, the body should be disinfected thor- 
oughly, to prevent the dissemination of the disease. If the 
body should be buried without being disinfected properly, the 
spores of the bacteria will remain dormant within the grave 
for a long period of time, as earth does not seem to destroy 
them. Under these circumstances, if the body should be 
disinterred for removal at any time, the spores may be thrown 
out on the surface and be carried away by the wind, or washed 
into the streams; or they may be washed out of the grave 
through the drainage from the cemetery, and be carried into 
the larger streams, which form source of the water supplies 
to the inhabitants along their course. In this manner, the 
disease is no doubt frequently disseminated. Therefore, all 
bodies dying from typhoid fever should be disinfected in a 
thorough manner before burial. 

To treat a case of typhoid fever, the body should be taken 
from the bed, the clothing removed, and the body washed with 
a strong disinfectant solution, as well as soap and water. 
The washable material that was used on the bed, with the 
clothing upon the body, should be rolled up closely and 
placed in a wash boiler - of water and boiled for at least an 
hour. After the body has been carefully washed, it should 
be embalmed. 

If the abdomen is distended with gas to a great extent, it 
will be better to treat this cavity before raising an artery. If 



35G 67/ .1 MPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

it is not distended with gas, an artery may be raised first and 
fluid injected into the arterial system. 

To operate on the abdominal cavity, an atmospheric pump, 
with complete tubing, and a hollow-needle of about ten or 
twelve inches in length, are necessary. Connect the needle 
with the tubing, place the goose-neck loosely in the bottle, al- 
ready tilled with fluid. Do not push the cork into the neck 
but let it lie upon the rim, so as to allow the gas to pass out 
freely; then introduce the needle at the proper point in the 
epigastric region las described in the chapter on "Cavity 
Embalming"), pushing the needle downward until the 
stomach is reached, always keeping in mind the location of 
the abdominal aorta and its large branches. The gas in the 
stomach will pass out through the needle and tubing into 
the bottle containing the fluid, through which it will pass, 
destroying the odor and any bacteria it may contain, and then 
escape through the neck of the bottle. This will be indicated 
by bubbles forming on the surface of the fluid. After all 
tin gas has escaped, before removing the needle, the goose= 
neck should be pushed tightly into the bottle, and fluid should 
be pumped into that part of the cavity from which the gas 
escaped. 

From the same point of introduction, the needle may be 
pushed through the peritoneal sac into other parts of the 
abdominal cavity that contain gas. When the needle enters 
these parts, the goose=neck should be loosened from the neck 
of the bottle as before. After the gas has escaped, the goose= 
neck should be tightened again in the bottle and fluid should 
be injected before the needle is removed. Inject the canals 
ami cavities in this manner successively, filling each, until all 
the gas is removed, and all parts of the abdominal cavity have 
received fluid. This should be done for the purpose of mix- 
ing the fluid with the contents of the alimentary canal and 
other parts of the cavities. 

If all the gas is removed from these cavities before the fluid 
is injected, it will he impossible to introduce the needle again 
into the several cavities that had contained gas, on account 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 357 

of their walls collapsing, and fluid injected would be received 
only by the peritoneal sac and would settle down through 
its walls into the tissues beneath. It is necessary that fluid 
should be mixed with the contents of the intestinal canal 
and other organs of the body, and to do this the fluid must be 
injected after the gas escapes, before the removal of the 
needle. 

After the abdominal cavity has been relieved of the gas and 
fluid injected, the needle should be turned upward through 
the front border of the diaphragm, and the serous sacs in the 
thoracic cavities should be treated, as directed in the chapter 
on "Cavity Embalming." Fluid should be injected through 
the respiratory tract to reach the congested part of the lung, 
and, if persistent purging from the lungs should follow in 
twenty=four to thirty=six hours after death, the needle, 
should be inserted through the front wall of the thoracic 
cavity, into the diseased portion of the lung, the part muti- 
lated as much as possible, and fluid injected in large quanti- 
ties. This will destroy the bacteria that are contained within 
the diseased portion of the lung, and purging will cease. 

After the cavities have been treated properly, an artery 
should be selected and raised for the purpose of arterial em- 
balming. If blood is withdrawn, it should be sterilized by a. 
solution of chlorid of lime, about five or six ounces to the 
gallon. 

If a body is treated in this manner, and enough fluid is 
used, there will be no danger of the dissemination of the dis- 
ease. 

TYPHUS FEVER. 
Known Also as Hospital, Jail, Camp, and Ship Fever. 

Typhus fever is an acute infectious disease, entirely distinct 
from typhoid fever, with which it was formerly confounded. 
The similarity of the two diseases, which caused the assump- 
tion of similar names, consists in a number of complications 
which may appear in both diseases. An essential difference, 
however, which exists in the whole course of the disease, is the 
intestinal lesion, which is characteristic of typhoid fever, but 



358 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

is never seen in typhus fever. Another, the chief distinction 
between the two affections, is the inability to find the bacillus, 
which causes the typhoid, in the typhus case. 

We have not been able yet to determine the pathogenic 
bacteria that causes typhus fever. We have much less infor- 
mation as to the way in which the affection occurs, than in 
relation to typhoid fever. Several microbes have been des- 
cribed in connection with the disease, such as streptobacilli, 
diplococci, and ascomycetes, but the question still remains 
open for investigation. The disease is rare at present. 
Epidemics arc infrequent, although sporadic cases occur from 
time to time in the centers of large population. 

Typhus fever is a most highly contagious affection; even 
the doctors and nurses in attendance on the sick are almost 
invariably attacked. It is a very grave, disease, and a large 
percentage of those attacked die. Clothes and bedding re- 
tain the poison for a long time-. Emaciation is not wry ap- 
parent, unless the case is protracted, through the intercur- 
rence of complications, when it may reach an extreme degree. 
Rigor mortis is not well marked and usually lasts but a short 
time. Hypostasis occurs rapidly, and putrefaction begins 
soon after death. The only constant lesion noticed in this 
disease is the profoundly changed condition of the blood, 
which is dark in color and very fluid. If clots exist at all 
they are large and soft and easily broken down. The amount 
of fibrin and the number of red corpuscles are diminished, 
but the number of white corpuscles is increased. 

Treatment. — In treating a case of typhus fever, it must 
always be remembered that it is infectious and highly con- 
tagious; therefore, the dress should be one in which the germ 
is not so likely to be. carried, as that described under the 
directions for the handling of infectious cases. The body 
should be laid upon the board and washed with a strong 
disinfectant; an artery should be raised and fluid injected 
in sufficient quantity to fill the tissues; the cavities should 
be filled in the usual manner. No special treatment can be 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 359 

given, as it is not known what parts of the body are infested 
with the specific micro=organisms of the disease. If the body 
is to be shipped, it should be wrapped in cotton, as directed 
in the rules for the shipment of bodies. 

MEASLES. 

Measles is an acute infectious disease, characterized by 
coryza and a peculiar red eruption. It is a disease of child- 
hood, but adults are liable to the infection when unprotected. 
Adults are attacked more frequently by measles than by 
scarlet fever. Within the first few months of infantile life 
there is less liability of attack, although infants two or three 
weeks old may have the disease. Both sexes are affected 
equally. The contagion is communicated by the breath and 
by the secretions, those of the nose being the most dangerous. 
The disease can be conveyed in the clothing, especially when 
secretions from the nose come in contact with the meshes. 

Death rarely results from measles alone, but complications 
produce many fatalities among children. There is no charac- 
teristic post=mortem appearance in any of the tissues. In the 
bronchi the mucous membrane indicates a catarrhal condi- 
tion, death usually resulting from pneumonia, capillary bron- 
chitis, or other complications in the lungs. The postmortem 
condition is referable to those diseases. There is an invariable 
swollen condition of the bronchial glands. Pleuritic effu- 
sions, as a result of pleurisy, may occur in some cases. Some- 
times, later on, there may be a tubercular invasion, which will 
produce the same condition that is found in tuberculosis. 
There is a congested condition of the mucous membrane of the 
stomach and small intestines. Peyer's patches or glands may 
be swollen and congested to a very considerable extent. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of measles the complication 
producing death mnsi be considered. If it be pneumonia, or 
consumption, or any other disease of the lungs, the treatment 
recommended for the disease should govern the operator; 



:*(>0 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



otherwise, the body should be injected very thoroughly and 
the tissues and cavities filled with fluid with a view to disin 
lection. If the body is to be shipped it must be prepared ac- 
cording to tlic shipping rules governing the same. For burial 
in the local cemeteries, the rules as laid down by the health 
board in the locality where the death occurs should govern. 

TUBERCULOSIS— CONSUMPTION. 
( Consumption | tuberculosis) is one of the most wide=spread 
and deadly diseases known. A larger percentage of deaths is 
due to this disease than to any other. 
It is an acute infectious disease, due 
to the presence of tubercular bacilli. 
It prevails in all climates and alti- 
tudes. Usually in the high altitudes 
it is longer in developing, due to the 
absence of moisture or damp atmos- 
phere. It is true deaths occur fre- 
quently in the higher altitudes, but 
this is the result usually of persons 
seeking higher altitudes for the pur- 
pose of being cured. The disease 
having almost run its course, but 
little of the lung remaining, it is im- 
possible for them to live in an at- 
mosphere so rarified. 
Morbid changes take place very frequently in the larynx, 
trachea, and bronchi. Tubercles commonly develop first in 
the upper part of both lungs; sometimes only in one. Their 
development is always, in a greater or less degree, associated 
with other morbid changes of the lungs, such as congestion 
and edema of the lungs, bronchial catarrh, pneumonia, etc. 

Cavities from the size of a pea to the size of an orange are 
found usually throughout the lungs. Sometimes they are large 
enough to involve the whole lung; pus from these cavities fre- 




Fig. 50. 
Bacillus Tuberculosis in giant cell, 
\ 1000. From photomicrograph made 
at the Army Medical Museum, Wash- 
ington, by Gray. 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 361 

quently escapes into the pleura or into the abdominal cavity. 
There is always a complication of pleurisy with effusion of 
serum or suppurative matter into the pleural cavities. Some- 
times this may be a straw-colored liquid, having the consist- 
ency almost of water ; at other times it may be heavy pus ; and 
at still other times a plastic effusion which adheres to the 
parietal walls of the pleura. Extensive pleuritic effusions may 
be found, causing the lung to adhere to the front or side of the 
chest. Very extensive morbid changes sometimes take place 
in the mesenteries, peritoneum, intestines, and other organs. 
Sometimes there is ulceration of the intestines, abscesses of 
the mesenteries, circumscribed or general peritonitis, ab- 
scesses of the liver, kidneys, etc. 

In children frequently the serous membrane of the brain is 
affected, and in tubercular diathesis, often rickets, or necrosis 
of the vertebra, or softening of the bones in general, is present. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of the disease, it must be re- 
membered that preservation is not all, but disinfection must 
be considered as well, as the inhalation, or taking into the 
system, of these tubercular bacilli will result, in many cases, 
in tuberculosis ; especially when a condition of the system pre- 
vails in which the tubercular bacilli may grow. 

To stamp out the disease, it is highly necessary that every 
case dying of tuberculosis should be disinfected thoroughly, 
as the spores will remain alive in a body placed in the ground, 
even after putrefaction has taken place, and be ready for de- 
velopment when they reach the proper soil. This can result 
from the disinterment of bodies that have been buried, or 
from outlets from graves in cemeteries, through sewers or 
ditches that carry the water, filled with these bacilli, into 
streams which assist in forming the water supplies of our 
larger cities. 

The fluid, which is injected through the arterial system, 
reaches the lungs, when they are not diseased, by means of the 



302 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

bronchial arteries, which are branches of the thoracic aorta; 
but in the case of consumption these arteries usually are de- 
stroyed or closed with fibrous plugs. Consequently, in many 
cases, fluid will not reach these cavities. The only positive 
evidence of fluid having reached the lungs is when it appears 
at the mouth or nostrils, which usually is the result of these 
plugs being forced out, or of the rupture of the wall of the 
artery in some part of the cavity. When such is the case, it 
is possible to complete the injection through the arterial sys- 
tem by closing the glottis. This can be done by the introduc- 
tion of a tampon or tampons of cotton through the nose or 
mouth, into the pharynx, for the purpose of closing the glot- 
tis. When this is accomplished, the injection may be pro- 
ceeded with, and when the cavities are tilled with fluid, the 
leakage will not interfere further with the injection through 
the arteries. 

If the fluid does not appear at the nose or mouth, during 
the injection of fluid through the arteries, it will be necessary 
to inject fluid through the trachea into the cavities of the 
lungs, tilling the lungs full. The operation should be re- 
peated, especially iu warm weather, in a few hours. The pleu- 
ral cavities should be emptied by pumping them out and then 
tilling them with fluid, (lases should be removed from the 
abdominal cavity and fluid injected in large quantities into 
the intestinal canal and peritoneum. 

A body treated in the above manner with a good disinfect- 
ing fluid, will be both preserved ami disinfected. 

TUBERCULAR MENINGITIS. 
Tuberculosis of the meninges is nearly always a secondary 
affection. It follows existing tubercular disease of some other 
organ. The inner covering of the brain (pia mater) is singled 
oiu most frequently for the secondary infection by the tuber- 
cular bacilli. The path, of these bacilli traverse to reach the 
pia mater is not known, unless it be by the circulation. The 
original tubercular disease would undoubtedly end in death, 
the meningitis merely terminating life more quickly. Again, 



I1IFECTI0US AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 363 

the primary trouble may not be noticed at all, or it may have 
long since appeared to have been arrested, so that the menin- 
gitis may appear to be a primary disease. It most frequently 
follows pulmonary tuberculosis, coining on as a complication 
in very advanced cases. It may follow tubercular pleurisy, 
but tubercular pleurisy is usually a sequel of pulmonary 
affection. 

Strumpell, in his "Text=book of Medicine," says : — 

"In children, and sometimes in adults, the virus may be car- 
ried to the meninges from chees3 r , tubercular, bronchial, or 
mesenteric glands, or from tubercular or fungous disease of 
the bones or joints. Another danger to adults is tubercular 
disease of the genito=urinary apparatus. It should also be 
noticed that a single large tubercle in bhe brain may lead to 
miliary tuberculosis of the meninges. In. short, we see that it 
is not impossible for any tubercular infiltration, wherever sit- 
uated, to communicate infection either to the meninges alone, 
or simultaneously to them and many other organs." 

In tubercular meningitis the pia mater' is the membrane 
that is affected. Sometimes, the tubercules are- very abundant 
and the inflammatory exudation comparatively scanty ; and 
in other cases the inflammation is considerable, although but 
fe.w tubercles can be found. The turbereles are found usually 
in greatest number along the course of the large blood-ves- 
sels, chiefly in the furrows and clefts of the surface of the 
brain, ki the fissure of Sylvius, the pons, medulla, and the 
cerebellum. Often the regions supplied by one or more ar- 
teries are affected more than other parts. This, no doubt, is 
due to the infection being carried by the circulation. There 
is, in the region involved, a gelatin=like exudation which 
varies in amount. Sometimes it is purulent in character; 
sometimes hemorrhages in the pia mater will give it a bloody 
appearance. 

Usually the brain is flattened from the pressure of the exu- 
dation. In some cases, the space all around the brain is filled, 
rendering it impossible to introduce fluid into the cranial 



3G4 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

cavity. Sometimes the braiD substance itself is involved in 
inflammatory changes, and capillary hemorrhages are found. 
The ventricles and subarachnoid spaces are filled with a ser- 
ous effusion. The spinal cord, in the majority of cases, is in- 
volved. The coverings around the cord arc inflamed, result- 
ing in the effusion of serous liquid, making pressure upon the 
vessels which supply the cord. 

Treatment. — In these cases, it frequently is impossible to 
reach the parts with fluid by the injection of the arterial sys- 
tem. The effusion of serous matter into the cerebrospinal 
canal is so extensive that it makes pressure upon all the ves- 
sels and capillaries thai supply the viscera that are involved. 
The injection of fluid through the cranial cavity by one of the 
needle processes, seems to be the only means of treatment. 
Of course, in cases of small effusions, where the pressure is 
qoI so great, the injection of fluid through the circulatory sys- 
tem will be successful. As has been stated above, many other 
organs are affected at the same time. Therefore, it is neces- 
sary to inject a sufficient quantity of fluid to fill every tissue 
in the body, and, to do this, the arteries should be filled in the 
usual manner, in addition to the needle operation, unless 
enough fluid is injected by the latter process. Usually too 
little fluid is injected by the cranial operations to fill the en- 
tire body. For shipment, these cases must be disinfected just 
the same as a case thai dies of pulmonary tuberculosis; it 
must be prepared by covering with cotton and the roller 
bandage for the prevention of the escape of the bacteria. 

SCROFULA. 
Tuberculosis of the Lymphatic Glands. 
Scrofula is a tubercular disease, and is produced by bac- 
teria that are similar to, if not identical with, the tubercular 
bacilli. Formerly it was thought that adenitis was essenti- 
ally different from tuberculosis, although the final cause < f 
death is usually tuberculosis of the lungs. It is true, when 
the bacilli are limited to the glands of the lymphatic system, 
the disease is very chronic. The tendency is a return to 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 365 

health. Tissue cells finally destroy the tubercles that are 
present. If the bronchial glands and those situated near the 
lungs are involved, after a time acute tuberculosis occurs. If 
the mesenteric glands are attacked, peritonitis, either general 
or circumscribed, will be a complication. 

Treatment. — When the physician's certificate gives as a 
cause of death scrofula, or chronic or tubercular adenitis, the 
case should be understood as tuberculosis, and should be 
treated in all respects as tuberculosis of the lungs. The body 
should be prepared for shipment in the same manner, as the 
danger of dissemination is equally as great. In preparing 
these cases, if the glands of the neck, or other parts of the 
body near the surface, are filled with pus, it should be let out 
and the parts sterilized thoroughly. If they are open, form- 
ing ulcers, they should be washed out, filled with hardening 
compound, and covered with lintine or absorbent cotton, and 
a piece of muslin or other white fabric. The body should be 
injected through the arterial system, and the cavities filled in 
the usual manner. 

CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS— SPOTTED FEVER. 

Cerebrospinal meningitis is an acute infectious disease, oc- 
curing in epidemics, and sometimes sporadically. It. is char- 
acterized by inflammation of the cerebrospinal meninges. It 
prevails in almost all parts of this country. This disease is 
not directly contagious, and probably is not transmitted by 
clothing or excretions. The nature of the virus is not yet un- 
derstood. There is a lance=shaped coccus found in the men- 
ingeal exudations, in many cases, very similar to the pneumo- 
coccus. There may be no characteristic changes in malignant 
cases, or the patient may die before the occurrence of exuda- 
tion. The meninges of the brain and spinal cord are inflamed 
in well=marked cases. 

( >sler gives the following description of the morbid changes, 
which were found in a case in Montreal, in which death oc- 



366 OE A MP 7 OX TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

curred about the fifth day, which he states, gives a good idea 
of the condition in tin's disease: — 

"The brain contained an excessive amount of blood. The 
dura] sinuses and all the veins and arteries were engorged. 
Some of the veins of the pia were as large as goose=quills. On 
the cortex there was much lymph beneath the arachnoid on 
either side of the longitudinal fissure — more on the right than 
on the left hemisphere. At the base there was a purulent ex- 
udate about the chiasm and inner parts of the Sylvian fissure, 
Inn none on the pons or medulla. There was no lymph on the 
course of the middle cerebral artery. The ventricles con- 
tained serous exudate, the walls were not softened. The gray 
matter of the brain was doubly congested, but presented no 
other hemorrhages, spots, or softening. In the spinal cord, 
The veins of the pia mater were engorged. On the posterior 
surface, from the cervical enlargement to the cauda equina, 
was a thick layer of grayish=yellow, lympho=purulent exuda- 
tion, which in places produced an irregular bulging of the 
arachnoid membrane. There were no changes in the thoracic 
or abdominal viscera. 

"This picture corresponds closely with five other cases 
which I have examined. In one case, however, the amount of 
exudation in the hemispheres was large and the convolutions 
were covered with a thick, creamy pus. Foci of hemorrhage 
and of encephalitis occur in some cases. The formation of ac- 
cesses has been occasionally described. The involvement of 
the ventricles is less than in tuberculous meningitis. In the 
cases which I have seen, the exudation, as is usual in the sec- 
ondary meningeal inflammation, was most apparent on the 
cortex. The exudation may extend along the lymph sheaths 
of the cranial nerves, particularly the auditory and the optic. 
In long standing cases the inflammatory processes appear 
more chronic. There are thickening and adhesion of the 
membranes, areas of cortical softening or of atrophy, and in 
some cases hydrocephalus. The changes in the other organs 
are those associated with fever. In the malignant cases there 
may be hemorrhages into the skin and on the serous mem- 
branes. Pneumonia, pleurisy, endocarditis, dysentery, and 
nephritis have been described. The spleen varies in size ac- 
cording to the period of the disease at which death has oc- 
curred. When the fever has been intense, it is enlarged." 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 367 

As will be seen by the above=described morbid condition 
the arachnoid membrane, and almost all other parts of the 
brain and spinal cord, will be filled by exudation. The ves- 
sels, both arteries and veins, are enlarged. As is stated, 
the veins of the pia mater are sometimes as large as goose= 
quills, due to the presence of blood, showing that pressure 
upon the capillaries is due to a great amount of the natural 
and exuded liquids of the body, preventing the fluid from 
reaching the different organs. 

Treatment. — The injection of fluid into the arterial system 
fails to reach and fill the viscera within the cerebrospinal 
canal. In all other parts of the body the different tissues 
will be filled, except when there are complications of pleurisy 
and pneumonia. In these latter cases, fluid will be prevented 
from reaching the tissue of the lung, as in the ordinary cases 
of penumonia and pleurisy. As in cases of pleurisy, the aim 
must be to relieve the pleural sacs of the exudation within 
them. Pericarditis is a frequent complication, and when 
present the heart sac or pericardium must be relieved of its 
contents. In cases where the lungs are inflamed (pneu- 
monia) , the area of the lung that is inflamed should be treated 
as a simple case of pneumonia. That is, if persistent purging 
from the lungs be present, the diseased lung should be muti- 
lated and fluid injected, as in the treatment of obstinate 
purging from the lungs in pneumonia. Failure of the fluid 
to enter the viscera of the cerebrospinal canal, frequently 
gives more or less trouble. The exudation being filled with 
bacteria, gases are formed which are annoying for the time 
being at least ; but if the arterial system and capillaries are 
filled thoroughly, and the body is kept in a recumbent posi- 
tion, in time, fluid will enter the cerebrospinal canal in 
sufficient quantity to destroy the bacteria by the penetration 
of the disinfecting chemicals. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES— Continued. 



SMALLPOX. 

Smallpox has been known for centuries, although formerly' 
ji was confounded with other diseases. It is an acute in- 
fectious disease, characterized by an eruption upon the sur- 
face of the body. Smallpox is one of the most virulent of 
contagious diseases, and persons exposed, if unprotected by 
vaccination or a previous invasion of the disease, almost in- 
variably are attacked by it. 

It is produced probably by a specific micro=organisin, 
though the same obscurity hang j over its cause as over those 
of many other diseases of the zymotic class, such as measles, 
scarlatina, etc. While, however, the causes of these two 
latter diseases seem still active, there is every probability 
that that of smallpox has subsided, and that now this dis- 
ease has no other source than human contagion. 

The poisonous material of smallpox is given out from the 
mucous and cutaneous surfaces of the patient, especially 
from the lungs and skin, and from the exhalations, the secre- 
tions, the excretions, the matter in the vesicles and pustules, 
and the scabs. These all contain the noxious germs of the 
disease, which may attach themselves to bed=clothes, and es- 
pecially to woolen, felt, and cotton articles. Such stuffs re- 
tain the specific poison for a very long, but undetermined, 
period, just as the hat, coat, and cap, worn in the dissecting 
room, retain the peculiar odor of the place for a long time. 
It is not yet determined at what period the poison is gener- 
ated by the patient's person — whether during the primary 
fever, or not until after the eruption has appeared — , but it 
is secreted probably during the primary fever. 

36S 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 369 

In general, it may be stated that the poison is most power- 
ful when it is most manifest to the sense of smell; that the 
dried crusts of the pustules or scabs possess a contagious 
quality and retain it for a long time ; and that it is unsafe for 
a susceptible person to be in the same room, or in the same 
house, with the disease. The dead body of a variolated per- 
son is equally infectious, and students, who have been near it, 
when brought into the dissecting room, have in consequence 
fallen ill with the disease. The infecting distance, therefore, 
must be many yards around the patient's room. 

Treatment. — Embalming for preservation should not be 
considered at all, but the body should be embalmed and disin- 
fected thoroughly as a sanitary measure. 

Every embalmer should be an immune to smallpox. He 
cannot tell at what moment he may be called into a case, even 
in the most remote parts of the country. Persons sometimes 
contract the disease at a very distant part of the country 
from the place where it develops. The disease may progress 
and death may result without even the knowledge of the 
physician. This occurs frequently. Therefore, every em- 
balmer should be prepared to handle these, cases. If the 
operator has not been vaccinated or if not recently, he should 
be vaccinated at once, on being called to the case. 

The embalmer should always dress himself in clothing 
which is free from meshes or pores — something with a smooth 
surface, as rubber. A rubber coat, extending from the neck, 
around which it should fit snugly, to the shoes, is preferable. 
This should be closely and evenly buttoned from top to bot- 
tom. The head, including the hair, should be covered with a 
cap made of the same material; the mustache and whiskers 
should be shaved from the face, and the hands covered with 
some protecting substance, or by rubber gloves. 

Upon his arrival at the death chamber, ke should place the 
body upon the board, raise an artery, and inject a large 



370 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



quantity of fluid; also, wrap a sheet, immersed in bichlorid 
of mercury solution (1:1000 or 1:500), around the body; 
then place the body in a coffin or casket, bury it at once, 
and disinfect the room. 

A better method would be: After the body has been em- 
balmed, close the doors and windows, sealing all cracks, and 
disinfect the room and contents with formaldehyde gas or 
sulphur, either of which, when properly used, will penetrate 
every part of the room. This should be done according to 
the methods described in the chapter on ''Disinfecting 
Rooms." After the room containing the body has been dis- 
infected thoroughly, wrap the body in a sheet which has been 
moistened with bichlorid of mercury solution (1:1000 or 
1 : 500) ; then place it in a coffin or casket, and deliver to tin 1 
cemetery for burial. 

CHOLERA, ASIATIC. 

Asiatic cholera is an infectious disease, produced by the 
comma bacillus of Koch, or spirillum chorlerse Asiatics. 
The comma bacillus was discovered 
by Koch in 1884 in the excreta of 
cholera patients and in the intesti- 
nal canals of bodies having recently 
died of cholera. The researches of 
Koch, made in India and Egypt, 
and those made by various bacteri- 
ologists since that time, in different 
parts of the world, show that the 
comma bacillus is present always in 
the intestinal contents of cholera 
patients during the height of the 
disease, and that it is not found in 
the intestinal contents of those suf- 
fering from other diseases, nor per- 
sons in perfect health. 

The disease is characterized by violent vomiting and purg- 
ing with rice=water evacuations, cramps, prostration, col- 




Fig. 51. Spiri 
[CO) 
From a cull 
nl end <>!' 24 1 
photomicrogra] 
fer. 



i Cholerae Asiaticae. 
, bacillus'] 

upon starched linen 
■s, X 1000. From a 
>y Frankel and Pfeif- 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 371 

lapse, and other striking* symptoms. It runs a rapidly fatal 
course, and is capable of being communicated to others 
through the dejecta of patients suffering from the disease. 
These bacilli are disseminated most commonly among a com- 
munity, and taken into the system, by means of drinking 
water, or by anything swallowed, which has been contami- 
nated by the excretions from a patient suffering with cholera. 
In a dried state, the bacilli in cholera excreta may be carried 
in clothing to any point or distance, where the disease may 
be communicated, as they retain their vitality for a long 
period of time, only requiring a "proper soil in which to 
grow." 

The appearance is very characteristic after death in col- 
lapse of cholera. The whole body has a shrunken aspect and 
a grayish or leaden pallor, which contrasts with the livid 
hue of the lips, eyelids, ears, abdomen, back, fingers, and toes. 
The eyes are sunken deeply in their sockets ; the nose is bent 
and sharp ; the temples are hollow ; the skin clings tightly to 
the bones; the tissues of the body are hard and dry, and, 
owing to the wasting of the soft parts, the muscles stand out 
prominently; decomposition takes place very slowly on ac- 
count of the absence of moisture ; rigor mortis is marked and 
persistent. 

The occurrence of muscular contraction after death is a 
very notable phenomenon. It may occur spontaneously, or 
it may be excited mechanically. A case is reported by Eieh- 
horst in which the fibers of the biceps muscle were noticed 
to move tremulously, and then the entire muscle contracted, 
causing flexion of the forearm, three hours after death. Even 
the fingers performed movements like those made in piano 
playing. The lower jaw moves in some cases, causing the 
month to open and shut. 

Barlow reports a case as follows: — 

"The patienl was a strong man; the course of his attack 
was rapid, and lie suffered most cruelly from cramps. With- 
in two minutes of his ceasing to breathe, muscular contrac- 
tions began, becoming more and more numerous. The lower 



372 CHAMPION THAT -Hook ON EMBALMING 

extremities were firsl affected. Not only were the sartorius, 

rectus, vasti, and other muscles thrown into violent, spas- 
modic movements, but the limbs were rotated forcibly, and 
the toes were frequently bent. The motions ceased and re- 
turned; they varied also; now one muscle moved, now many. 
Quite as remarkable were the movements of the arm; the 
deltoid ami biceps were peculiarly influenced; occasionally 
the forearm was tlexed upon the arm — Hexed completely — 
and when I straightened it, which I did several times, its 
position was recovered instantly. The fingers and thumbs 
were now and then contracted, and at times the thumbs were 
separately moved. The fibers of the pectoral muscles were 
often in full action; distinct bundles of them were seen at 
intervals beneath the skin. After I had taken leave of the 
body, the nurse was horrified by a movement of the lower jaw, 
which was followed by others, and I thought for a moment 
that the man was alive. The facial muscles became generally 
affected, and at length all was still." 

These movements vary from slight trembling to powerful 
contraction of the muscle. Cases have been known to turn 
completely on the side, by a strange and forcible combination 
of muscular contractions. These phenomena are not peculiar 
to cholera only. In cases of yellow fever they have been 
observed as well'. In both diseases they occur when the 
cases are severe and rapidly fatal, and the patient is robust, 
witli great muscular energy. Stilla says: — 

"On opening the abdominal cavity of persons who have 
died in collapse of cholera, one is struck by the general pink 
or rose tint of the peritoneal coat of the intestines. It is 
produced by a repletion of the minute branches of the portal 
venous system. Sometimes the color of the peritoneum is 
rendered very dark by the pitchy blood contained in the 
veins. The stomach generally has a thin, partially trans- 
parent liquid of a greenish or grayish color. The intestinal 
canal is, in a majority of cases, partially tilled with liquid 
which has the aspect of turbid serum, more or less mixed with 
the previous contents of the bowel, if death has taken place 
very rapidly, but otherwise it is almost colorless. In the 
more prolonged cases the contents at the upper part of the 
bowel are less liquid and are darker in color." 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 373 

The comma bacilli are found in the intestinal contents, es- 
pecially in the lower part of the small intestine, when death 
occurs at the height of the disease, and also in the diarrheal 
discharges; when the discharges become fecal or more solid, 
the bacilli disappear. 

Treatment. — Preservation of bodies dying from this dis- 
ease should not be considered at all. A thorough embalmment 
is necessary only as a sanitary measure. Disinfection of the 
body should be complete — internally as well as externally. 
First remove all clothing from the body and place it upon 
the board. Then pour a first=class disinfecting fluid into 
the mouth and nostrils. Raise an artery and fill the circu- 
lation with fluid, forcing in all that can be gotten into it. 
Then fill the intestinal canal and cavities of the chest and 
abdomen as full as possible. Soak a sheet in the fluid and 
wind it around the body, covering every portion. By this 
treatment the bacilli will be destroyed in a short time, ren- 
dering dissemination impossible. 

All bodies dying from infectious diseases should be em- 
balmed thoroughly, as directed elsewhere, if interment is to 
take place, as otherwise the bacteria may get into our water 
supplies by some means ; or necessary disinterment may fol- 
low at some future time, greatly endangering a community. 
The above measures, or cremation, should be enforced by our 
health boards in these cases. 

YELLOW FEVER. 

Yellow fever is a specific infectious disease, so named from 
the yellow color of the skin which appears in the advanced 
stages of the severe forms of the disease and in the dead body. 
The infectious germ peculiar to this disease has not yet been 
determined, although it is supposed to exist in the intestinal 
contents. It does not originate in country districts, bnl is 
peculiarly a disease of dense population. It prevails in cities, 
on the shores of the ocean, along the large rivers, and on 
ships. It does not prevail in a hot, dry, nor in a cold, climate. 



LT/AMPIOX TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 




It matters not how violent the disease may be at any place, 
yellow fever will be arrested on the morning of a heavy frost 
or freeze. It seems that a hot, moist temperature is essen- 
tia] to its existence. 

In cases dying' from yel- 
low fever, the features fre- 
quently are bloated; the 
skin of the face and upper 
portion of the body is of a 
golden=yellow color, while 
the dependent parts pre- 
sent a mottled, purple and 
yellow, ecchymosed appear- 
ance. On section of the 
muscle a large amount of 
dark fluid blood escapes, 
Fig. 52. Bacillus Cadaveris. which on exposure becomes 

Smear preparation from liver of yellow fever 
cadaver, kepi 18 hours in antiseptic wrapping, bright Scarlet. PlltrefaC- 

From a photomicrograph (Sternberg). 

five changes may take 
place early, sometimes appearing to begin before death. 
However, in some eases, especially in those stricken with 
the disease while in full muscular vigor, when the disease is 
severe and rapidly fatal, peculiar muscular phenomena take 
place, similar to those of cholera. 

Dr. Dowler, of New Orleans, reports a case, as follows: — ■ 

"Xol long after the cessation of respiration the left hand 
was carried by a regular motion to the throat, and then to 
the crown of the head; the right arm followed the same route 
on the right side; the left arm was then carried back to the 
throat, and thence to the breast, reversing all of its original 
motions, and finally the right arm did exactly the same 
things." 

All the vital organs and other viscera of the different 
cavities are affected more or less. The blood is altered in 
color and consistency. The secretions are changed. Bile is 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 375 

always absent from the intestinal contents. There is ex- 
treme congestion of the dependent portions of the lungs. 

Treatment. — When death occurs from yellow fever, the 
body should be embalmed thoroughly, to destroy the con- 
tagion. Disinfection of the body should be very complete 
both internally and externally. After removing the clothing 
from the body, it should be placed on the board ; then fill the 
mouth, nostrils, and other openings of the body with a strong 
disinfectant fluid ; wash the body with the same ; raise an 
artery at some point and inject sufficient fluid to fill every 
part of the body; fill the alimentary canal and the thoracic 
and abdominal cavities. If enough fluid is injected, and the 
body is treated as directed above, there will be no danger of 
disseminating the disease. Incineration, however, would be 
the best method of disposing of bodies dying of the disease. 
Fire is the best disinfectant; it will positively destroy all 
germs. 

BUBONIC PLAGUE. 
Bubonic plague is a specific infectious disease of very great 
virulence, which runs a very rapid course, and is character- 
ized by adenitis (buboes)., carbuncles, and frequently by hem- 
orrhages. 

The disease dates from a very early period in the Christian 
era, about the second century. Between the sixth and seven- 
teenth centuries epidemics of varying severity occurred in 
Europe. The most disastrous was the famous "black death," 
which occurred in the fourteenth century. It extended all 
over Europe and destroyed about one=fourth of the popula- 
tion. During the great plague of London in the seventeenth 
century (1663), it caused the death of about seventy thou- 
sand people. In later years it has been confined almost ex- 
clusively to Turkey and Southern Russia. 

Recently, interest has been aroused in the disease by its 
prevalence in Eastern Asia, the South Sen Islands, and India. 
In September of 1806, in Bombay, it began and developed 



376 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

gradually for about three months, maintaining a great in- 
tensity for about three months, and then, slowly declined for 
about the same length of time. In the nine mouths twenty 
thousand or more people died. It broke out again in Bombay 
during 1898, and at the present time is spreading to points 
near our own country; some eases have developed even in one 
of our new possessions, Hawaii. 

This disease is caused by a specific organism, a bacillus dis- 
covered by Kitasato, which has been studied carefully by 
Versin and by others. The bacillus pest is bubonicse is found 
in the blood and in the organs of the body; also in the dust 
and soil of houses in which the patients have lived. Flies and 
tleas die from the disease and may convey the infection. Dis- 
eased animals, such as rats, mice, and dogs, will convey the 
plague to healthy ones. 

It prevails most frequently throughout the hot season, al- 
though it may break out during the coldest of weather. No 
age is exempt from the disease. Tt prevails chiefly among 
he poorer classes, in the slums, and where hygienic conditions 
are at fault in the great cities. The disease lias not the 
extreme contagiousness of smallpox or scarlet fever, although 
it may be communicated from one person to another through 
the air. The virus very readily attaches itself to houses, 
clothing, and bedding. 

To prevent the spread of the disease, general hygienic meas- 
ures should be carried out. There should be a proper recepta- 
cle for sewerage, a pure water supply, the cleansing and dis- 
infection of houses, and the isolation of those who have the 
disease. Rooms should be disinfected thoroughly by the use 
of formaldehyde gas, all evacuations of the sick should be 
mixed with the milk of lime. The bodies of those who die 
of the disease should be embalmed very thoroughly, and 
buried ; or, better still, cremated. 

Treatment. — Bodies dying from this disease should not In- 
buried unless thoroughly embalmed, as the bacteria will live 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 



377 



The poi- 



a long time in the earth. Indeed, there is much in favor of 
the view that, the plague is a soil=disease, the virus of which, 
like that of anthrax and tetanus, resides permanently in the 
soil of the affected district, so that, if the body were not em- 
balmed and should be disinterred years hence, there would be 
great danger of disseminating the disease. Embalming for 
preservation should not be considered at all. These bodies 
should be embalmed as a sanitary measure only and should 
be filled thoroughly with a very strong disinfectant fluid. 
They cannot be shipped under the rules adopted for the trans- 
portation of bodies. 

TETANUS— LOCKJAW. 

Tetanus Neonatorum. 

Tetanus is an infectious disease, characterized by tonic 
spasms of the muscles, with marked exacerbations 
son is produced by the tetanus 
bacilli, which are found in earth 
and in putrefying fluids. Tetanus 
usually follows a wound; it pre- 
vails more extensively in some lo- 
calities than in others. 

It seems to be epidemic among 
iiew=born children, when it is usu- 
ally called tetanus neonatorum. It 
is due, no doubt, to the sloughing 
off of the umbilical cord, when in- 
fected clothing or sponges are 
used for cleaning. 

Tetanus is less frequent in tem- 
perate than in hot climates, and in 
the Caucasian than in the colored race. Tetanus neonatorum, 
especially, is more frequent among the colored races than in 
the white. 

Tetanus, in a majority of cases, follows an injury which 
may be of the most trifling character. It is more frequently 




Fig. 53. Bacillus Tetani. 
From an agar culture, X 1,000. Pho- 
tomicrograph by Frankel aud I'feiffer. 



378 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

a. result of punctured or contused, than of incised, wounds, 
and most frequently follows wounds of the hands and feet. 

Lesions in the spinal cord or brain are not characteristic. 
Congestion has been found in different parts of the cord and 
brain with perivascular exudations and granular changes in 
the nerve=cells. The condition of the wound varies. If the 
nerve is injured, it is reddened and swollen. Inflammatory 
results have been noticed usually in the umbilicus in tetanus 
neonatorum. 

Tin 1 bacillus that causes the disease — a spore=proilu<-in<v 
anaerobic — will grow without the presence of oxygen. They 
multiply, usually in the seat of the wound, where alone the 
toxic matter is formed. The bacteria do not invade the blood 
and organs of the body. The poison that is formed in the 
wound is absorbed and carried throughout the body by the 
circulation, producing its effects upon the brain, spinal cord, 
and the nervous system in general. 

Treatment. — The treatment of a case dying from tetanus, 
oi- tetanus neonatorum, should be the same as for an ordinary 
case, there being no lesion or morbid material that requires 
treatment of a special character. The surface may be of a 
bluish color, cyanosed, due to the extreme muscular contra< 
tion, making pressure upon the vessels, even to the extent of 
mutilating the peripheral veins and capillaries. The body 
should be placed high on the incline and the blood removed, 
either by the direct operation on the heart or through one of 
the veins. 

ANTHRAX— SPLENIC FEVER. 
Wool-Sorters' Disease — Rag-Pickers' Disease. 
Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by the bacil- 
lus anthrasis. The disease is widespread among animals, 
especially sheep and cattle. In man it is only the result of 
accidental inoculation with the virus, or it may occur sporad- 
ically. In Europe and in Asia it is much more prevalent than 
in America. Anions? sheen in ppr+^in parts of Europe, and 
among herds of cattle in Russia and Siberia, its ravages are 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 



379 




not equalled by any other plague. It is a rave disease in this 
country. The disease, no doubt, is conveyed by a direct inoc- 
ulation in animals, as by the sting or bite of insects, or by 
feeding upon the carcases of those animals that have died of 
the disease, or, more commonly, by feeding in pastures in 
which the germs have been pre- 
served. These may come to the 
surface, having been propagated in 
buried carcasses of infected ani- 
mals, in several ways — the ground 
may be turned, a,s in cultivating 
the field, or the earth=worm may 
bring the germs to the surface. 
Certain fields or farms may be in- 
fected for a long period of time. 

The disease in man is always the 
result of infection, either through 
the skin and intestines, or, in rare 
instances, through the lungs. Per- 
sons whose occupations bring them r ' feiftei 
into contact with animals, such as shepherds, butchers, and 
those who work in hair and wool, are the ones usually af- 
fected. The diseases known as wool=sorters' and rag-pickers' 
diseases are produced by anthrax infection, by ulceration, or 
inoculation in their occupation. 

Surgeons sometimes become infected from treating animals 
having the disease, or from making autopsy on same. The 
case is reported of Dr. John J. Smith, a veterinary surgeon of 
Ohambersburg, Pennsylvania,, who, on August 25, 1S99, made 
an autopsy on some stock which had mysteriously died in a 
near=by town. The disease was found to be anthrax. Dr. 
Smith also attended other infected stock, but, being aware of 
the horrible nature of the disease to man and beast, took 
proper sanitary precautions. Nevertheless, nine days later, 



"/ 



Fig. 54. Eacillus Anthracis. 
From cellular tissue of inoculated 
mouse ; stained with gentian violet, X 
1 Photomicrograph by Frankel and 



1,000. 



380 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

an eruption appeared on his hands, which he at once pro- 
nounced anthrax. Physicians were called immediately, who 
gave everv care possible to the case, performing an operation. 
The victim, however, grew rapidly worse, his body became 
badly swollen, he fell into an unconscious state, and, on the 
fifth day, died. 

Anthrax, if it is external, usually affects the bauds, arms, 
or face, being produced by inoculation, which occurs through 
.in abrasion. The points of inoculation, during the course of 
the disease, change considerably, but finally at death, as a 
rule, the surface is covered with scabs; the glands are swol- 
len ; sometimes, in the more malignant form, there is gangrene 
in the parts, which may have involved a considerable surface. 
The head and face are involved most frequently in those who 
die from anthrax, especially affecting the parts which are ex- 
posed, producing a very unpleasant appearance. 

In internal anthrax, the mucous membrane of the stomach 
and intestines is affected variously: the spleen is enlarged ; 
the blood is dark and remains fluid for a long time after 
death; sometimes the anthrax bacilli are found in the blood; 
sometimes the lungs and pleura, are inflamed to a considerable 
extent. 

Treatment. — <>n account of the deadly nature of anthrax, 
i he embalmer, when called to handle a case of this kind, can- 
not be too careful, both in its treatment and in taking every 
precaution possible against becoming infected himself. 

The body should be placed on the board on the incline, and, 
if blood is withdrawn by the direct operation on the heart, or 
through one of the veins, it should be sterilized thoroughly, 
by mixing- it with a strong disinfectant. An artery should be 
raised and fluid injected to till the tissues completely; fluid 
should then be injected through the alimentary canal in suf- 
ficient quantity to sterilize the contents; also, the spleen 
should be treated by injecting a large amount of fluid around 
it. The peritoneum should be tilled at the same time. As the 
lungs and pleura are involved frequently, fluid should be in- 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 381 

jected through the respiratory tract, filling the lungs and 
tract completely; also, fluid should be injected in the 
pleural sacs in sufficient quantity to sterilize their contents. 
A body dying from anthrax should be disinfected very thor- 
oughly, as the germs are very tenacious. The face should be 
washed carefully with a good disinfecting fluid, and powder 
and tints be used to give it as near a normal appearance as 
possible. 

SYPHILIS. 

Syphilis is a specific infectious disease, communicable by 
contact of the poison with a breach of the surface, or by 
hereditary transmission. Syphilis is characterized by a 
period of incubation and (except in cases of inheritance) by 
certain changes in the seat of infection, and in the proximate 
lymphatic glands. These are followed by eruptions on the 
skin and mucous membrane, and sometimes by lesions of the 
deeper tissues and viscera. Frequently burrowing abscesses, 
involving much tissue, are found in the peritoneum, groins, 
neck, and other parts of the body. Septicemia may be the 
cause of death. The visceral organs may become a putrid 
mass. The sources of infection are very numerous. When- 
ever the poison comes in contact with a broken surface, it 
may be absorbed and general infection follow. 

Instances of syphilis being conveyed quite independently of 
sexual relations are very common. The disease may spread 
by kissing, infectious syphilitic lesions being quite common 
around the lips and in the mouth. Medical men not infre- 
quently contract the disease by examining or operating on 
syphilitic cases. 

Treatment. — In handling a case of syphilis, the hands 
should be covered by some tenacious disinfecting salve. A 
preparation known as "hand protector" is a very good one. 
It should be rubbed over the hands and under the finger nails; 
or rubber gloves should be worn over the hands, to prevent the 



382 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

matter from ulcerated glands and chancres entering any 
abrasion that might be in the skin. Ulcers should be washed out 
willi fluid and covered with "hardening compound," or some 
similar preparation. The arteries should he raised and fluid 
injected to fill every part of the body. The cavities should 
then he treated in the usual manner. The external openings 
of the body, especially the mouth and nose, should be filled 
with fluid, and pledgets of absorbent cotton, soaked in fluid, 
should be introduced into the nostrils and the month. 

SYPHILITIC DISEASE OF THE LUNGS- 
In syphilitic disease of the lungs much uncertainty exists 
as to the effects which may be produced in connection with 
the lungs, bat there is no doubt that specific lesions in these 
organs occur, occasionally at least, though they may be less 
frequent than in any other viscus. They are met with, usual- 
ly, in advanced cases of acquired syphilis, when the signs of 
the disease are markedly developed in other parts. The 
lungs are involved, occasionally, in congenital syphilis. A 
predisposition to syphilitic disease is supposed to occur in 
tubercular or scrofulous diathesis. Gummata constitute the 
most certain and unquestionable lesions of syphilis of the 
lungs, but they are rare. They vary in number from one to 
many. In the latter case they are disseminated throughout 
the entire lung, but have a predilection for the deeper parts 
of the organ. 

These growths usually vary in size from a pea to a walnut, 
but they may reach much larger dimensions. They are 
rounded \\\ shape and generally well defined, and found sur- 
rounded with a fibrous capsule. In the earlier stages, gum- 
mata in the lungs appear on section grayish or brownish=red, 
firm and dry in consistence: but later on, they tend to degen- 
erate and become more or less gaseous and less consistent, 
and they may even break down in the center so as to form 
cavities. The disease may involve, in a chronic form, the 
interstitial or connective tissue, resulting in fibroid infiltra 



INFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 383 

ticm of the pulmonary tissue. The affected parts are much 
indurated, and the bronchi in the region which is involved be- 
come more or less dilated. 

Various parts of the lungs may be affected, but the disease 
appears to have a preference for the base and roots of the 
lungs. The fibroid infiltration may become the seat of ul- 
ceration or gangrene. One lung may be affected throughout, 
while the other is quite free from disease. The lung that is 
involved may be enlarged, even to the extent that its surface 
is marked by the ribs. On section, it presents a white or 
yellowish color, being more or less bloodless, and little or no 
fluid can be pressed from the surface. Careful examination 
reveals minute bands of fibrous tissue running in all direc- 
tions. Microscopic examination reveals a thickening of the 
walls of the minute bronchioles, due to the fibrilated tissue, 
which undergoes degenerative changes. The vessels also be- 
come thicker, and ultimately obliterated, destroying the chan- 
nels through which the blood reaches the lungs, and also 
destroying the means of injecting fluid into the diseased tis- 
sue. Even the bronchial tubes or their subdivisions may be 
affected by syphilitic disease, their submucous tissue, and 
occasionally their deep structure, becoming involved. Ulcer- 
ation may take place, followed by cicatrization, and lead to 
the thickening of their walls, narrowing or completely clos- 
ing these channels. 

Treatment. — In cases of this kind, we may expect to find 
other organs affected. If the liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, 
and other organs of the abdomen are involved, direct opera- 
tions upon them should be resorted to in the embalming of 
a subject dying from syphilitic disorders, especially where the 
disease lias been extremely chronic. In the lungs, the 
bronchial and other arteries are obliterated, or partially 
destroyed, and in sonic cases the bronchial tubes are closed, 
so that it will require the introduction of the hollow=needle 



384 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

into The diseased substance to fill the mass with fluid. Putre- 
faction may take place in the tissue, on account of the absence 
of fluid, resulting from occlusion of the vessels through which 
fluid is usually carried to the lungs. 

In handling these cases, if there are any abrasions or 
minute cuts upon the hands of the operator, they should be 
covered with gloves or an antiseptic paste, sufficiently tenaci- 
ous to cover and till the abrasions, should be used, so that 
inoculation cannot take place. Carelessness in this respect 
has been the cause frequently of inoculation. Not only may 
the disease be contracted in this manner, but the absorption 
of the poison may produce blood poisoning of the severest 
type 



CHAPTER XXIX. 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD. 



SEPTICEMIA— BLOOD POISON. 

Septicemia usually follows injuries, surgical operations, 
childbirth, carbuncles, burns, scalds, dissection wounds, etc. 
The morbid conditions resulting from septicemia recently 
have been studied very carefully, and the characteristic le- 
sions have been found, particularly in the blood and in the 
alimentary canal. The rapid putrefaction of the body after 
death is the most prominent manifestation of the disease. 
Rigor mortis comes on and passes off almost instantly. In- 
deed, sometimes it can scarcely be detected. Usually the em- 
balmer is not called in until a period of time has elapsed after 
death, and, even if he were present, rigor mortis would be so 
slight and of such short duration that it would escape his 
notice entirely. 

Davaine has denned septicemia to be the "putrefaction of 
the living body," because, in many cases, putrefaction is go- 
ing on in the neighborhood of the wound prior to death. 

When septicemia originates in an external wound, putre- 
faction goes on rapidly, in the vicinity of the wound, after 
death occurs. The blood does not coagulate ; only a few im- 
perfect, deep=black=colored clots are found after death; the 
presence of this blood in the soft tissues greatly hastens putre- 
faction. Generally putrefaction goes on most rapidly in the 
dependent portions of the body and along the course of the 
large veins, especially those filled with blood. 

Watson says: — 

"It has also been observed that putrefaction in the human 
cadaver begins much sooner and progresses much more rap- 

385 



38G CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

idly under similar circumstances when the death has been 
produced by this disease than when it has occurred from any 
other cause." 

"Furthermore, tin's rapid decomposition is not limited to 
the internal organs, but may frequently be strongly marked 
on I he surface of the body after a lapse of a few hours." 

Blood taken from such a body usually is acid in its reac- 
tion, and always gives off a peculiar, putrefactive odor. In 
the study of the blood with the microscope, it 1ms been shown 
Hint the blood, as well as the various organs of the body dying 
from this disease, contains a great number of the rod=bac- 
teria. These bacteria are in every part of the body, being- 
carried there by the blood. 

Cases dying of septicemia are very hard to preserve. In- 
deed, we have known cases dying several days after parturi- 
tion to decompose very extensively within the period of twelve 
hours, the body swelling to its greatest distention, the fea- 
tures being almost entirely obliterated, the neck swelling out 
even with the face, and the putrefactive odor filling the apart- 
ment, indicating that putrefaction had progressed to a very 
great degree. 

The blood is not in the same condition in all cases of blood 
poisoning. In one case the blood is found, under microscopic 
examination, to be perfectly normal, while in another, it is 
filled with rod=bacteria. In the former cases, abscesses may 
be found in all the tissues of the body, especially in the lungs, 
pleura] membranes, and other soft tissues. 

Treatment. — It is highly important, in these cases, to re- 
move at once all of the blood, or as much of it as is possible. 
It is better to raise the femoral vein for tSiis purpose. Place 
the body on an incline, having an assistant raise the arms to 
cause the blood to descend to the lower part of the body. 
Open the vein and introduce and tie the vein=tube, which 
should be long enough to reach above Poupart's ligament as 
far ns the common iliac vein, the outer end being directed into 
a conveniently=placed receptacle. Then raise the artery and 
insert the arterial=tube in the usual manner and begin the 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 387 

injection of fluid. The blood, being very thin, will drain out 
through the tube without the aid of the pump, gravity being 
sufficient. Inject the fluid slowly and carefully, while the 
blood is running, continuing the injection until the arteries 
and capillaries are filled, or until the embalming fluid appears 
at the outer end of the vein=tube. Then remove the gas that 
may have formed within the thoracic and abdominal cav- 
ities, and fill them, including the alimentary canal, with fluid. 
The arterial=tube should be capped and left tied in the artery, 
so that in due time more fluid may be injected. 

Many of the fluids that are used for embalming purposes 
have a tendency, after so large an amount has been injected 
into the tissues, to change or discolor the skin. Even if it is 
known that such a discoloration will take place, it is far bet- 
ter to discolor the surface than to allow putrefaction to con- 
tinue. 

PYEMIA. 

Pyemia is caused by the entrance of septic products into 
the blood, and is characterized by clots or emboli, and the 
consequent occurrence therein of patches of congestion, in- 
flammation, suppuration, or gangrene. It is caused, usually, 
by some one of the following conditions : injuries, surgical 
operations, burns, scalds, carbuncles, dissection wounds, 
puerpural fever, etc. 

The external appearance of the body after death varies 
greatly. In some cases the skin will be found to be of a dark= 
orange or icteric tinge, and in other cases it will be pale or 
anemic in appearance. Sometimes, black or yellow spots, 
produced by the effusion of blood into the areolar or fat tis- 
sue, exist on the surface of the body, and the edges of the 
wounds are generally of a dull=yellow color. Great emaci- 
ation follows a long continuance of the disease. Rigor mortis 
usually is well marked and will last for some hours. In the 
cellular tissue there is diffuse suppuration, forming a thin and 
unhealthy pus, which is liable to burrow. Sometimes suppu- 
ration takes place beneath the fascia of the tendons and mus- 
cles. In fact, suppuration or gangrene may be found in any 



388 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

part of the body, but most frequently the lungs and pleurae 
are involved. The pleural cavities may contain a large 
amount of purulent matter, and large abscesses may be found 
in the lungs, and even gangrene may be present. Abscesses 
may be found in the liver, kidneys, and spleen. Pus will be 
found frequently on the surface, and in the Haversian cauals 
of the bones; it also forms, at times, in the joints. Pyemic 
blood is usually normal, but it may contain the ro<l=bacteria ; 
in the latter case the diser.se might be termed septopyemia. 

Treatment. — In cases where the blood does not contain 
the rod=bacteria, putrefaction will not follow as quickly as in 
septicemia, but the treatment must be just as thorough, be- 
cause, when rigor mortis passes off, putrefaction will be very 
rapid. In those cases where rod=bacteria are found in the 
blood, and the blood has that peculiar, putrefactive smell, the 
treatment should be heroic, and should follow as soon after 
death as possible. This is best done by raising the femoral 
vein and artery, which can be done through the same incision. 
Fluid can be injected through the femoral artery, and, the 
femoral vein being the most dependent, more blood can be 
withdrawn through it than through any other. A short vein= 
tube, sufficiently long to pass beyond Poupart's ligament as 
far as the common iliac, is all that is needed. It should be 
introduced into the vein and tied, directing the outer end into 
a vessel. The blood in these cases is as thin as water and will 
escape without the use of the atmospheric pump, gravity be- 
ing sufficient. The injection of fluid can be begun at once. 
Enough fluid should be injected to till every tissue of the 
body. The introduction of fluid will cause the blood to flow 
more freely by making pressure upon the capillaries and 
smaller veins and the peripheral portions of the circulation. 

It will be well to inject enough fluid to make the entire cir- 
cuit of the circulation. Fill the alimentary canal with fluid ; 
also the peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial sacs. Enough 
fluid should be injected through the trachea to reach the ab- 
scesses within the lungs. Before proceeding to inject the body, 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 389 

remove all gases from the several cavities ; in some eases it 
will be well to pump out and refill the cavities. Occasionally 
a second injection of the arterial system, may be necessary. 

ERYSIPELAS. 
Erysipelas is an inflammation of the skin, caused by the 
presence of a specific micrococcus. It is characterized by red- 
ness, swelling, and pain. It spreads over a large portion of 
the skin from the points of its origin. There are two varieties 
commonly recognized — the idio- 
pathic and the traumatic. The 
latter follows a wound of the 
skin. It is known as a surgi- 
cal disease, and usually is 
treated of in surgical works 
under the head of traumatic Fig. 55. 

^rvsinplflS PllPrnpral prvsiilP- Section from margin of an erysipelatous 

^I^fcipeicife. .rueipLlcU eiVfeipe- inflammation sho\vins? streptococci, in lymph 
las— that Which follows Child- spaces, X 900. From a photograph by Koch. 

birth — results from the injuries to the female genital organs 
during parturition. Erysipelas sometimes occurs in a new= 
born infant, having its origin in the navel or in the small 
anal fissures. 

The so=called idiopathic erysipelas appears almost exclu- 
sively in the face, or at least spreads from that point. It 
frequently extends to the scalp and the trunk, covering a 
large portion of the surface. It is supposed that idiopathic 
erysipelas is different from the traumatic variety, but it is a 
question whether or not it is essentially so. There are good 
reasons for supposing that idiopathic erysipelas is really 
traumatic in every case, the origin of which is due to in- 
juries to the skin or mucous membrane, which may be over- 
looked on account of their small size. For example, we see 
eases, and many of them, in which erysipelas takes its origin 
in the excoriations on the borders of the nostrils, or on the 
nose, or in the fissure of the lobe of the ear; and quite fre- 
quently CUI'yza precedes, erysipelas, in which case, the first 



390 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

inflammatory swelling of the skin is at the nose. Probably 
nasal catarrh causes slight abrasions of the mucous mem- 
brane, and these furnish a point for the entrance of the in- 
fections bacteria. 

Such cases suggest the possibility that the infection may 
take place in some other manner than that mentioned above. 
Fehliesen has demonstrated the characteristic chain=forming 
micrococcus in the lymphatic vessels of the serous canaliculi, 
of the diseased portion of the skin. This micrococcus is dis- 
tinguished by its peculiar behavior in pure gelatin cultures, 
and invariably causes erysipelas in rabbits and human beings 
that are inoculated with it. 

In some cases the subcutaneous, connective tissue is in- 
volved as well as the skin, causing suppuration of the areolar 
tissue. It is soft and boggy and in a state of moist gangrene. 
Even the deep parts of the connective tissue, as of the pelvis 
and mediastinal tissue, may be involved. The disease may 
have extended to the mucous membrane of the fauces, uvula, 
and bronchi or lungs, which may slough off, and death may 
be caused by edema of the glottis, by asphyxia, or by the 
development of pyemia. 

Treatment. — Traumatic erysipelas is considered peculi- 
arly contagious. Persons handling these cases should be care- 
ful to disinfect themselves thoroughly, cleansing the nails, 
hair, whiskers, and exposed surfaces, before visiting living 
cases upon which surgical operations have recently been per- 
formed, or women in childbirth. Gloves should be worn, or 
some antiseptic should be used, to prevent the absorption of 
tin 1 poison through the erosions or small abrasions on the 
hands. Indeed great care should be taken in the handling 
of these cases, as the poisonous matter is absorbed easily, and 
may result in blood-poisoning or erysipelas, which is very 
dangerous. 

The body should be injected carefully through the arterial 
system and the cavities should be well filled. The gangrenous 
portions should be washed thoroughly with hot water, fol- 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 391 

lowed by application of a strong disinfecting or dessicating 
powder, which, if properly made, will thoroughly disinfect 
the external parts, and will also dry and harden them, leaving 
no odor. If the face and other surfaces that are exposed to 
view have been involved in the disease, there is no way to 
make them look natural. A little powder and the different 
pigments, judiciously used, may be beneficial, and add to the 
appearance. 

The body should remain in the room, if possible, until 
fumigation of the apartment has been effected. Sulphur 
fumes or formaldehyde gas should be used for the disinfection 
of the room. First, close and seal all the windows and doors, 
making the room practically air=tight; then follow the di- 
rections given for fumigating rooms. 

PURPURA. 

Purpura is a disease in which circumscribed effusions of 
blood take place in the soft layer of the skin and connective 
tissue, due to rupture of the capillaries of the inner layer. 
Hemorrhages of this character have been seen as early as the 
third day after birth and at all periods of life. Women seem 
to be attacked more frequently than men. They may accom- 
pany the most various diseases of the general system. They 
are observed frequently in Bright's disease and in valvular 
disease of the heart. They occur in phthisis, acute rheuma- 
tism, cirrhosis of the liver, leukemia, and in many other dis- 
eases. They have been seen to follow severe frights; also 
sudden destruction of the peripheral vessels, as in severe 
coughing and epilepsy. Purpuric spots may follow the use of 
chloral in excessive doses, or of iodid of potassium in speci- 
ally susceptible individuals. 

The rete mucosum and the papillary layer of the cutis are 
the chief seat of the hemorrhage in purpura. Owing to the 
rupture of the capillaries over a small area, the blood finds 
its way into the meshes of the connective tissue and fills 
the interspaces between the hair=follicles and the ducts which 
traverse these parts; also, it finds its way into the network 



392 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

of the soft layer. Absorption of the serum takes place, and 
changes occur also in the coloring matter, which is set free 
from the red=eorpuscles, producing various tints of blue, 
green, and yellow, until, if life continues, it is completely 
absorbed ; if death takes place at this stage, these tints will 
remain in the skin. 

Very large extravasations of the blood may result in a 
long-continued or even permanent discoloration of the spot. 
Similar effusions to those in the skin are found internally, 
in the the severer cases, beneath the mucous membranes of 
the canals; but in these parts they are not seen after death 
and their presence will make no difference to the embalmer. 
If a postmortem examination is held, extensive extravasa- 
tions will be seen in the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal 
sacs, and sometimes in the arachnoid membrane of the brain. 
They will occur also in the muscles, in the periosteum, and 
even in the bones, as well as beneath the conjunctiva and in 
the retina. 

Purpura seems to depeud on an alteration in the nutri- 
tion of the coats of the blood=vessels, which results in weak- 
ness and their inability to stand the strain of arterial pres- 
sure, so that they rupture; or, on alterations in the blood it- 
self; or, on both causes combined. These spots are seen, 
most frequently, on the feet and legs and on other dependent 
parts, such as the back of the patient, if he has been in a 
recumbent position, or where arterial pressure is intensified 
by gravity. 

Embolism and thrombosis have been suggested as an ex- 
planation of some cases. These discolorations consist of iso- 
lated spots, whose color varies from bright=red to a livid or 
dark=purplish=red ; if the red corpuscles have been reduced 
and the hemoglobin eliminated, it will change in time, pro- 
ducing tints, according to which is present at the time <>f 
death ; it may appear bine, green, or yellow. These spots 
do not disappear on pressure. Their shape is generally 
round or triangular and their edge is always uneven or den- 
ticulated. Their size varies usually from that of a pin head 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 393 

to that of a pea or bean, and in some cases they may be as 
much as several inches in circumference. The smallest spots, 
not larger than a finger nail, are termed petechia? ; the larger, 
ecchymoses. The spots are usually level with the skin. 

Treatment. — Very rarely the epidermis (cuticle) is raised 
in the form of a bulla, containing serum and blood=cor- 
puscles. When these spots appear, as stated above, they 
cannot be removed. The blood having passed into the tis- 
sues outside of the walls of the capillaries, and the pigment 
being of a permanent color, there is nothing that will affect 
them unless it be injecting directly through the hypodermic 
needle into the spots. This, no doubt, will modify the dis- 
coloration to a certain extent, if it does not remove it alto- 
gether. Bleachers placed upon the outside can do no good, 
as the chemicals will not pass into the coloring-matter which 
produces the spot. The flesh tints artistically used will 
cover these extravasations. In the general treatment of the 
case, the disease causing death will have to be considered. 
LEUKEMIA. 

This is a disease in which there is a decrease of the red cor- 
puscles in the blood, while the white corpuscles are increased 
correspondingly in number. In health and in normal blood, 
the proportion of white to red corpuscles is about 1 to 666, 
but in this disease the white corpuscles are so increased that 
the surface becomes almost entirely white. A pale or anemic 
color will appear in the face, hands, and other exposett parts. 
Its characteristics are well=marked in most cases. The 
blood=changes are associated with marked changes in the 
spleen, bone=marrow, and lymphatic glands. The organs 
just enumerated, being concerned in the manufacture of 
blood, it is very reasonable to suppose that leukemia is a 
disease which primarily affects them, and that an increase 
in the white corpuscles results from derangement of their 
normal condition. 

The cause of this disease is not known. It is supposed by 
some authors to be some specific affection, but they have not 



304 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

been able, thus far, to prove the truth of their surmise. Even 
an exciting cause can be discovered in only a few eases. The 
disease develops spontaneously in perfectly healthy persons. 
It is a disease of middle life, say between the ages of thirty= 
five and forty=five years. Occasionally well=marked cases 
have been observed even in childhood, but less frequently in 
wld age. Men are much more liable to the disease than 
women. 

There is usually extreme wasting of the body, and some- 
times dropsy is present. The heart and veins are distended 
with large blood=clots. The portal, cerebral, pulmonary, and 
subcutaneous veins may be remarkably distended. There 
is usually a clotted condition of the blood, and an enormous 
increase of the white corpuscles, giving a paste=like appear- 
ance to these blood=clots, so that on opening the vessels at the 
right side of the heart, the clots are very often mistaken for 
the contents of abscesses. 

These coagula have a dark=greenish color, resembling some- 
what the fat of a turtle. There is diminished alkalinity of 
the blood, but the fibrin is increased. The lesions of the bone= 
marrow are the next in frequency to those of the spleen. In 
the majority of cases the marrow presents a peculiar yellow- 
ish or puriform appearance, resembling the consistent mat- 
ter which forms the core of an abscess or it may be dark in 
color. There may be hemorrhagic infractions. The shell 
of the bone may be extended considerably, and localized swell- 
ings, which are tender and yield to firm pressure, are found. 
The spleen may attain the size of from six to eight pounds, 
and the length of a foot. Strong adhesions may unite it to 
the abdominal wall, the diaphragm, or the stomach. The 
capsule may be thickened and the organ be in a condition of 
chronic hyperplasia. The swollen spleen pulp may be soft, 
and even rupture may occur from the intense hyperemia, fill- 
ing the abdomen with blood. The lymphatic glands are en- 
larged, sometimes in coniunction with splenic enlargement; 
or they may be enlarged and the spleen remain normal. The 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 305 

cervical, axillary, mesenteric, and inguinal groups of glands 
may be very much enlarged, but they are usually soft, iso- 
lated, and movable. The tonsils and the lymphatic follicles 
of the pharynx and mouth may be enlarged, also. 

In these cases there is always present asthenia and anemia. 
The bodies are usually very thin, indeed. On observing the 
body, it might be supposed that nothing remained but "skin 
and bones" ; it is true there is not much else but the diseased 
tissues. 

Treatment. — If the blood does not pass immediately into 
the venous side, but remains a little while in the arteries, 
coagulation will take place, forming occlusions, when it will 
be impossible to inject fluid into tissues through the arterial 
system. On this account, cases of this kind should be em- 
balmed as quickly as possible after death. If the arteries 
are full, open them and allow the blood to escape. Insert 
the small trocar into the left ventricle of the heart, keeping 
in mind the heart's exact position ; pierce it, and inject a 
ten per cent, solution of salt water, say one to two ounces. 
This will produce enough irritation to bring about post= 
mortem contraction of the involuntary muscular substance 
of the circulation. 

We have found this operation to work admirably in two 
cases. Of course, that is not a sufficient number of cases to 
determine positively its practicability, but it is worthy of a 
trial, as the retension of blood in the left side of the heart 
and arteries for a period of time, say from two to three hours, 
will result undoubtedly in the coagulation of the blood, which 
will positively close up the channels through which the capil- 
laries and all the tissues of the body are filled. If the spleen 
is enlarged to any considerable extent, it can be detected 
easily by palpation. If it is enlarged, it is possible that 
blood is coagulated within, and fluid will not be received by 
the spleen through the splenic artery. In that case, fluid 
should be injected into the organ directly through the hol- 
low=needle. Inject fluid into the cavities and fill the arteries 
thoroughly in the usual manner, using sufficient fluid to fill 
the body. 



390 CHAM PIOX TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

PUERPERAL OR CHILDBED FEVER. 

Puerperal fever is an acute infectious disease, due to the 
septic inoculation of wounds, resulting from childbirth. 
Pathogenic bacteria are always present. The head of the 
child, in its descent through the soft parts, produces abra- 
sions in the parts, in many cases, especially through the con- 
tracted bony outlet. Sometimes, as a result of inertia of the 
womb, or a slight or incomplete dilatation of the parts, they 
remain firm and hard, and instruments are used to aid the 
delivery of the child. Whether in the hands of an expert, 
or of a mere tyro, the parts may be ruptured on account of 
pressure. Skill renders these accidents more infrequent, 
but it cannot always prevent them. The pathogenic bacteria 
get into the mutilated surfaces from souk 1 source, and are 
there absorbed by the circulation, and deposited in the dif- 
ferent tissues of the body, especially in the peritoneum and 
the serous membranes. When deposited in the peritoneum, 
inflammation follows, and the morbid changes that take place 
are precisely the same as those which attend the inflamma- 
tion of other serous membranes. 

The exudation from the surface of the peritoneum, when in- 
flammation is present, may form a false^membrane, from 
one=fourth to one=half inch in thickness. More or less fluid 
matter will be found in the cavity of the peritoneum. In 
many cases there will be more or less suppuration. When 
the exudation is purulent, it will be cither thin and greenish= 
yellow in colo]-, or opaque=white and creamy. If the ma- 
terial is putrid, it is of a grayish=green color, quite thin, and 
has a putrefactive odor. Pus or abscesses are found in the 
lungs and other organs, and in the serous membranes, such 
as the pleura', pericardium, arachnoid, etc The septic mat- 
ter may be taken up by the blood and carried to all parts of 
the body, resulting in septicemia, or blood poisoning, which 
may cause death. Rigor mortis is never marked, usually 
coming on and passing off within an hour; or it may be in- 
stantaneous. The blood may have a putrefactive odor, and 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 397 

be very thin, with here and there small, very dark or black 
coagula. Putrefaction follows very rapidly, especially in 
the lower or under surfaces of the body, and along the large 
veins. 

Treatment. — These cases give more trouble to the era- 
balmer than any other, and must be treated very thoroughly. 
Nothing must be left undone that will assist in the preserva- 
tion of the body. The amount of morbid material found 
within the peritoneal cavity varies from one to many pints. 
In many cases, a great deal of gas accumulates within the 
different serous cavities, and should be removed at once. 
The morbid material should be pumped out, and these cavi- 
ties filled with fluid. The femoral artery and vein should 
be raised for the purpose of injecting fluid and withdrawing 
blood. Raise the vein and insert a drainage=tube, placing 
the body well on the incline. Raise the arms above the head 
and allow the blood to escape, aided by the force of gravity. 
Then begin the injection of fluid through the artery. Fill 
the. arterial system thoroughly, injecting sufficient fluid to 
fill all the tissues. 

These cases require a large amount of fluid. Enough should 
be injected to swell the surface. If possible, cause the fluid to 
make the whole circuit of the circulation, continuing the in- 
jection until the fluid appears at the opening of the femoral 
vein. Then remove the tube and close the artery, vein, and 
incision. 

Remove as much of the effusions as possible from the 
serous cavities. The fluid that is first injected dissolves or 
dilutes the semisolid or thick matter, and much of this diluted 
material can be aspirated with the fluid. Then the cavities 
should be refilled thoroughly, putting in a large amount of 
the fluid, say several quarts. Fluid should not be saved in 
these cases; a liberal amount should always be used. 

A female assistant should fill the vagina with a tampon of 
absorbent cotton, which has been filled thoroughly with fluid. 



398 CHAMPIOX TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

The body should be washed with a strong disinfectant, and 
fluid should be injected into the external openings. 

PERITONITIS. 

Acute, general peritonitis is an acute inflammation of the 
peritoneum. It may Ite primary or secondary. That is, the 
peritoneum may be attacked primarily, or it may result sec- 
ondarily from some other disease, such as inflammation or 
extensive ulcerations of the stomach or intestines, cancer, 
suppurative inflammations of the spleen, liver, pancreas, or 
the pelvic viscera. Perforation of the peritoneum occurs fre- 
quently and is followed by inflammation. It may result 
from external wounds, ulceration of the stomach, intestines, 
or gall=bladder, abscess of the liver, spleen, or kidneys, ap- 
pendicitis, or inflammation of the ovaries. 

When the abdomen in a recent case of peritonitis is opened, 
the coils of the intestines are found distended and glued to- 
gether by lymph, and the peritoneum appears to be congested 
in patches and sometimes over the whole surface. Some- 
times, there will be but little effusion present — only a thick 
exulation upon the walls. Then again, the intestinal coils 
will be covered with lymph, and there will be present a large 
amount of yellowish, scro=fibrinous liquid. If the stomach 
or intestines be perforated, food and fecal matter may be 
mixed with the effused fluid. 

When purulent, the exudation is either thin and greenish^ 
yellow in color, or opaque=white and creamy; if the material 
is putrid, the exudate is grayish=green in color, thin, and has 
a putrid odor. This usually results from perforative or 
puerperal peritonitis. If blood is present, it results in cases 
caused by wounds, cancer, or tubercle. The amount of effu- 
sion into the peritoneal cavity varies from one to several 
pints. These different conditions are produced by some of 
the various soecies of micro=organisms. 

Acute inflammation of the small intestine and colon, ob- 
struction of the bowels, and other diseases, may be mistaken 



DISEASES AFFECTING THE BLOOD 399 

for peritonitis, as their symptoms are similar. Such being 
the case, the physician's certificate may be misleading. 

Treatment. — In cases of peritonitis, the other serous mem- 
branes usually are involved. The serous sacs in the thoracic 
cavity — the pleurae and pericardium — will be found to have 
a greater or less amount of effusion within them, which, with 
the abnormal matter in the peritoneum, produce a condition 
that will require very thorough treatment. The amount of 
effusion within these several cavities will vary in quantity. 
Gas accumulates also very rapidly and should be removed 
at once with the morbid material. After removing the gas 
and effusions, the cavities should be filled with fluid. 

The blood should then be withdrawn and the arterial sys- 
tem injected with sufficient fluid to fill the body very thor- 
oughly. The femoral artery and vein are preferable for the 
purpose, as, the femoral vein being more dependent, a greater 
amount of blood can be withdrawn than from any other 
point. A vein=tube long enough to reach above the valves 
beyond Poupart's ligament, and allowing the outer end to 
reach a vessel for the purpose of receiving the blood, should 
be inserted. The arterial=tube should be introduced into 
the artery and fluid injected, which will aid gravity in the 
removal of the blood. After the arterial injection, the fluid 
should be withdrawn from the cavities and fresh fluid in- 
jected. A large amount of fluid should be injected in these 
cases, as bacteria are found frequently in the blood, which 
indicates that the germs are in every tissue after death. 
After the operation, the body should be placed on the level, 
with the head slightly elevated. 



CHAPTER XXX. 



DISEASES OF THE AIR=PAS5AGES AND CHEST. 



PNEUMONIA— LUNG FEVER. 
Acute or Croupous Pneumonia — Pneumonitis. 

Pneumonia and pneumonitis are the technical terms, and 
lung fever the common term, used to indicate the same dis- 
ease. Pneumonia is an acute infectious disease, produced 
by the diplococcus pneumonia 1 , which prevails in all cold 
climates and attacks all ages. 

To understand its morbid anatomy, the student should 
study the anatomy of the lung. He 
should remember that there are 
two circulations through the 
lungs, the pulmonary and the 
nutrient. The pulmonary circu- 
lation carries the blood from the 
right side of the heart, through 
the pulmonary artery and its 
many subdivisions, to the air= 
cells, where it gives off carbonic 
acid gas and receives oxygen from 
the air. It is then taken up by the 
pulmonary veins and carried to 
the left side of the heart. 

The nutrient (bronchial) ar- 
teries are branches of the thoracic aorta, and carry the ar- 
terial blood to the lungs, for the purpose of nourishing the 
lung tissue. The waste is taken up through the general 
system of capillaries and carried back to the general circu- 
lation by the bronchial veins. It is through the bronchial 




Fig. 56. Microccus Pneumoniae 
Crouposae, 
In sputum of a patient with pneu 
monia. X 1000. From pbotomicro 
graph by Frankel and Pfeiffer. 



DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES AND CHEST 401 

arteries that fluid is carried to the lungs in arterial embalm- 
ing; no fluid enters the lungs through the pulmonary circu- 
lation. The blood=vessels and bronchi, with the connective 
tissue and lymphatics, form the bulk of the lungs. These 
tissues are elastic. The walls of the bronchi and air=cells 
are also elastic, and will admit of much dilatation. The 
whole are bound together closely by a strong, elastic, fibrous 
covering. 

In pneumonia there is inflammation of the Avails, or 
mucous membrane, lining the bronchial tubes. Mucous of a 
darkish=red color is thrown off in abundance, forming the 
prune=juice sputum, which is coughed up 
by the patient suffering with the disease. 
This takes place during the stage of en- 
gorgement, which occurs early in the dis- 
ease. In this stage the lungs are en- 
gorged; the blood=vessels are filled to a 
certain extent in both circulations. The 
lobe or lobes of the lung that are involved 
will be enlarged, although, if death oc- m£!^ 

curs in this stage, that part of the lung Sin § le colo ° y of micrococ - 

07 L . ens pneumoniae crouposse upon 

will be found to contain more or less air. aga r piate 24 hours oi<a. x 
Indeed, if a piece be cut from it and 10 °- (Frankei and pfeiffer.) 
thrown into the water, it will float. 

If death occurs later in the disease, say during the second 
or third week, the condition of the lung will be quite differ- 
ent. This is the stage known as red hepatization. The lung- 
involved will appear like the substance of the liver. It will 
be perfectly solid, and red in color, showing that the vessels 
are filled with blood. The parts will be very much enlarged, 
;iml will fill the side or cavity or cavity of the chest, pressing 
upon the outer walls sufficiently to bulge the intercostal 
muscles. If the diseased portion is taken from the cavity, 
the outer surface will have indentations of the ribs upon it. 
No nil- will be found in the diseased part. If a portion be 
cut from it and thrown into the water, it will sink like lead. 
The part of the lung not involved, will be filled with a frothy 




402 CHAMPION TEXT-HOOK ON EMBALMING 

substance. If a large portion of the lung is involved, there 
is likely to be purging of a bloody, frothy material, a few 
hours after death. 

Still later, the stage of gray hepatization conies 011 ; the 
lung is solid and has a gray appearance. If the lung is cut 
through, the knife turned edgewise, and the surface scaped, 
there will be purulent matter on the edge. Sometimes the 
lung will be softened, and only a large pouch or bag of pus 
will be found. 

Treatment. — If death has occurred during the first or en- 
gorgement stage, the arteries should be filled thoroughly, the 
cavities treated as usual, and fluid injected into the lungs 
through the trachea and bronchial tubes. Usually such treat- 
ment will be sufficient to preserve the case. 

If, however, death occurs during the second stage, known 
as red hepatization, it is necessary to embalm the body very 
thoroughly, filling the tissues through the arteries, the lungs 
through the trachea, and filling the cavities in the usual man- 
ner. This may be all that is necessary, but in some cases, 
as where a large amount of the lung is involved, and the 
weather is warm, purging will result in from twenty=four 
to thirty=six hours after death. When such is the case, the 
body may be turned over, and as much of the matter pressed 
out through the respiratory tract as possible, and the lungs 
filled again through the trachea. 

If the case is an obstinate one, the purging will return in 
a very short period. To inject fluid again through the 
trachea will not remedy the rase. Some have advised to 
close or tie the trachea, but such operations are impractica- 
ble. If the trachea is tied or closed, gas will be formed, and 
it must have 1 an outlet. If it cannot pass out through the 
trachea, which is tin* natural outlet, it will pass through the 
tissues, get into the cellular tissue beneath the skin, and 
swell the neck, face, and body. To close the respiratory 
tract at any point will give this result; therefore, it is neces- 
sary to resort to other means. 



DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES AND CHEST 403 

The diseased portion of the lung should be mutilated by 
the introduction of a scalpel or sharp=pointed bistoury, 
through the front wall of the chest, severing the bronchial 
tubes which lead directly to the trachea. After a thorough 
mutilation of the diseased part, inject fluid into the lung 
through the hollow=needle, which should be inserted at the 
point from which the mutilation was performed. The 
general embalmment will have taken place some hours before ; 
consequently, if the circulation is ruptured, no harm will 
result. 

Gases are produced within the lung by putrefaction. The 
putrefactive bacteria get into the diseased portion of the 
lung, which is so solid that it will be impossible to receive the 
fluid ; therefore, there is nothing to prevent their growth, and 
to cause a liquefaction of the lung, in spite of all the fluid 
that can be put into it through the respiratory tract. Indeed, 
if much of the lung is involved, there will be little fluid re- 
ceived in that manner, and what is received will settle to the 
posterior part. The bacteria will grow rapidly, and putre- 
faction of the whole body will follow. As a last resort, 
mutilate and inject the lung as above directed. 

When death takes place during the third stage, or stage of 
grey hepatization, it is necessary to pump out the softened 
contents of the lungs, or pus, and fill the cavity within the 
lung with fluid. Otherwise, treat the body as directed when 
death has resulted during the first stage. 

GANGRENE OF THE LUNGS. 

Upon postmortem examination, in cases of gangrene of 
the lungs, the morbid changes will consist of a cavity, ir- 
regular in outline, with ragged walls, sometimes containing 
loose fragments of lung tissue, or a dirty=greenish or 
brownish mass of material, with the regular gangrene odor. 
The cavity is usually in the middle or lower lobe of the right 
lung. 

Treatment.— Tn the treatment of a case of this kind, fluid 
should be injected into the lungs through the respiratory 



404 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

tract, filling the diseased parts thoroughly. Au artery should 
be raised and fluid injected, and the cavities should be tilled 
in the usual manner. 

PLEURISY— PLEURITIS. 

Inflammation of the Pleura. 

Pleurisy is defined as an inflammation of the pleura, of 
whatever nature or extent. The causes of pleurisy may be 
local, as wounds or bruises of the chest wall ; fracture of the 
ribs; caries of the spine; escape of irritating matter into 
the pleural cavity, as from the lungs in tuberculosis, or from 
the bronchial glands, or through the sides of the abdomen, as 
in gall=stones, or abscesses which perforate the diaphragm, 
etc. 

The general <>r systemic causes of pleurisy are very obscure. 
It may follow a chill; or, it may occur in a rheumatic or 
gouty habit; or the bacteria, which frequently cause inflam- 
mation of the other serous sacs, may find their way into the 
pleurae. It is frequent as a complication of other diseases; 
it always accompanies acute pneumonia; it often follows 
scarlatina and accompanying diseases of the kidneys; it 
arises sometimes after measles, which is possibly due to the 
inflammation of the lungs, which so frequently results from 
measles; it may be caused by rupture of pyemic abscesses; 
it also accompanies tuberculosis, following each new in- 
vasion of the lung tissue involved. 

Acute pleurisy, when idiopathic, is more often on the left 
side than on the right; it is rarely bilateral (both sides). 
When due to acute rheumatism or nephritis, it is generally 
bilateral. 

Acute pleurisy is common at all ages. It is found some- 
times in the first six months of life. In these little ones, it 
is often overlooked, unless there is an abundance of effusion. 
Very often it is not noticed even then. At the age of five 
it is frequent, but at middle life it reaches its maximum of 
frequency. The younger the child, the more readily the ef- 
fusion becomes purulent, and, in such cases, the inflamma- 
tion often extends, before death, to the pericardium. Cases 



DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES AND CHEST 405 

of pleurisy are known to have existed in persons beyond three 
score years of age, but, as a rule, it is very rare in an aged 
person. The male is affected more commonly than the 
female, owing, no doubt, to exposure to the weather. 

Traumatic pleurisy results from the breaking of a rib, or a 
w T ound, as from a knife or sword thrust, etc. 

The morbid changes that follow pleurisy differ but little 
from those of inflammation of other serous sacs. Effusions of 
the serofibrinous and the proliferative kind quickly infiltrate 
the tissues, and the natural gloss of the membrane gives place 
to opaqueness. In active cases, the effusion is not very volu- 
minous, but is very rich in fibrin, and a false membrane forms 
on the pleura and' is often of considerable thickness. Its at- 
tachment is very tenacious. Some of the loose or adherent, 
gluey effusion degenerates, forming purulent matter. Clots 
of fibrin will be found floating freely and abundantly in the 
effused serum, containing a great abundance of imprisoned 
cells. In the effused fluid itself, cells are very few in most 
cases, but, when present in large quantities, purulent trans- 
formation is more apt to take place during the course of the 
disease. 

In cases of large effusion in the pleural sacs, the lung is 
found compressed and often bound down by false membranes 
extending from the walls of the cavity. In adults, the lung- 
is found usually thrust upward, inward, and backward — that 
is, in the back of the apex of the cavity. It may be compressed 
from one=fourth to one=eighth of its normal size. It appears 
flattened, leathery, bloodless, airless, and will sink in water. 

If the effusion has been present for some length of time, 
complete or partial adhesions, or bands of connective tissue, 
will have bound the lung into the position it assumes on ac- 
count of the pressure of the effusion. Pleuritic adhesions are 
found very commonly after death from other diseases, their 
origin being unknown or forgotten. On the other hand, false 
membranes and bands may have 1 become the seat of the de- 
generative process, and pus, tubercule, and the like may be 
found in them. The compressed lung will be found in the 



406 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

degenerative stage, with ulcerations and septic changes in the 
lung tissue. 

The pathological changes that are found in every part of 
the contents of the side of the chest that has been diseased are 
very extensive. A great amount of purulent matter may ex- 
ist. The position of the heart and other viscera may be 
changed, and the chambers of the heart and pulmonary veins 
may be full of clots. Secondary abscesses may exist in other 
parts of the body, furnishing a good soil for the development 
of bacteria. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of cases of this kind, it is 
always necessary to pump out the cavity of the chest, remov- 
ing from it as much of the effusion as possible. Then fluid 
should be injected in sufficient quantity to sterilize thor- 
oughly everything that remains. Fluid should be injected 
through the respiratory tract, as the lung itself may be in- 
volved, as is seen in the above discription in certain cases. 
Fluid should be injected also into the arterial system in suf- 
ficient quantity to sterilize the tissues in every part of the 
body. The abdominal cavity should be treated, always keep- 
ing in mind that abscesses may exist in all parts of the peri- 
toneal sac or in the mesenteries. Pleurisy being a very com- 
mon disease, the effusions are overlooked in the young by the 
physician; the embalmer should be very careful to examine 
the pleural sacs and endeavor to pump out as much of the 
effusion as possible before injecting fluid into them. No 
trouble should result if these cases are properly treated. 

PERICARDITIS. 
Inflammation of the Pericardium. 
The pericardium (heart sac) is a seromembranous sac, with 
the visceral layer closely enveloping the heart and roots of the 
great vessels connected with the heart, while the parietal 
layer is loosely reflected along the organs, having its external 
surface intimately united with a dense sheath, which passes 
outward to the roots of the vessels, and continues below with 
the attachment of the diaphragm. A serous fluid is thrown 
out in the interior of this sac, for the purpose of preventing 



DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES AND CHEST 407 

friction during the movement of the heart, while it is expel- 
ling the blood. 

The morbid anatomy of pericarditis is simple enough, ac- 
cording to Balfour : — 

"Very earty, pericarditis is rarely seen except as associated 
with Bright's disease, and then, at first, we have merely vas- 
cular injection with a few shreds of lymph visible about the 
roots of the great vessels. In a few days, the whole surface 
of the heart may be covered with a fine fibrous layer which 
may, even at this early stage, have connected together the 
visceral and parietal payers of the pericardium somewhat 
firmly. More usually there is some serous exudation mingled 
with the fibrous matter, which is found covering the peri- 
cardium. This serous effusion not infrequently amounts to 
several pints; it is always turbid from the fibrin suspended in 
it, and is of a yellowish, greenish, brownish, or reddish color. 
AVhen, along with any considerable layer of lymph upon the 
pericardiac surfaces, there is much fluid diffused, the surface 
of the lymph is covered with shaggy processes floating in the 
fluid. In a very short time, a fine network of capillaries is de- 
veloped in the fibrinous exudation, and the rupture of these 
newly developed capillaries now and then gives rise to what 
is termed hemorrhagic pericarditis, in which the fluid, and 
even the solid lymph, is deepty stained with the blood coloring 
matter." 

This also happens when pericarditis is associated with pur- 
pura or scurvy. Sometimes layers of coagulated blood are 
found alternating with layers of unstained lymph. Fre- 
quently connective tissue is gradually developed in the fibrin- 
ous layers, either locally, giving rise to partial adhesions, 
which at the base of the heart are more dense, but at the apex 
arc drawn out to fibrinous strings; or the two layers of the 
pericardium may- be united so closely, that they can be sep- 
arated only by the use of considerable force. Occasionally 
pus, or the cheesy or calcareous remains of such a deposit, is 
found encysted between the adhering layers of the pericard- 
ium; and it happens sometimes that this calcareous layer en- 
velops the whole heart, which makes it appear as though it 
had been converted into bone. 



40S CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

True purulent pericarditis, though of rare occurrence under 
any circumstance, is most frequently fatal, and seems to oc- 
cur more often in connection with general disease, or accom- 
panying a rupture of local abscess of the liver or lungs into 
the pericardium. In one case, which was used for demonstra- 
tion before one of our classes, the stomach was found adhered 
to the under surface of the diaphragm, and a fistulous canal 
connected the cavity of the stomach with the pericardium, in 
the latter of which was found, mixed with the pus, undigested 
particles of both animal and vegetable matter, which had 
passed through the fistulous opening from the stomach into 
the pericardium. These cases are rare, but occur occasionally. 

When the sac is tilled, more or less, with purulent or ab- 
normal matter from the liver, lungs, or stomach, putrefaction 
often takes place in these effusions, and causes them to be- 
come brownish in color and to have a strong odor. Putrefac- 
tion may arise from the entrance of air into the pericardium 
after an operation by a surgeon, conducted without antiseptic 
precautions; or it may arise in patients greatly enfeebled by 
exhaustive disease, without any entrance of air into the peri- 
cardium. An exudation which has become ichorous may cor- 
rode the pericardium, making it a dirty color. 

Putrefaction of the effusions causes the development of 
various gases within the pericardium, which sometimes will 
be sufficient to press the lungs up into the apex of the thorax, 
and crowd the diaphragm well down into the abdominal cav- 
ity, making pressure upon the large blood=vessels, forcing the 

bl 1 upward through the superior vena cava ami jugular 

veins, causing a dark discoloration of the face, head, and 
neck. In rare cases, the effusion will be so great as to till the 
thoracic cavity, making the extreme pressure upon the sur- 
rounding tissues. A case is reported by Mint in which ten 
pints of effused matter were removed from the pericardium. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of a case of pericarditis, it 
is always necessary to examine the pericardium and remove 
the gas and other contents; also fluid should be injected be- 



DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES AND CHEST 409 

fore the removal of the needle. If blood has been forced into 
the head, face, and neck, the heart should be tapped after 
placing the body upon an incline, and all the blood that is 
possible should be removed. The pericardium can be reached 
from the same point through which the needle is inserted in 
the operation of withdrawing blood from the right auricle, by 
turning the needle downward along the right side of the 
heart ; or it may be reached from the epigastrium. If the pleu- 
rie or lungs are involved in the disease, they should be treated 
specialty; otherwise, the body should be treated in the usual 
manner, by filling the cavities and the arterial system with 
plenty of fluid. 

HYPOSTATIC CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS. 

Hypostatic Pneumonia — Splenization. 

Hypostatic congestion of the lungs follow the long=contin- 
ued fevers and the adynamic states generally. The back part 
or base of the lung becomes dark in color and engorged with 
blood and serum, causing extreme solidification in many 
cases. This is due, in part, to the position assumed by the 
patient during the disease, but chiefly to the weakened heart 
action. Indeed, if parts of the involved lung are removed and 
thrown into the water, they will sink, as in the second stage 
of pneumonia. In cerebral apoplexy the bases of the lungs 
become engorged, but not to the extent that they do in the 
long-continued fevers, the lungs containing more air. In all 
cases of typhoid fever, and the adynamic fevers in general, if 
the body has remained for a long time in the same position in 
a recumbent posture, hypostatic congestion will be a compli- 
cation and. should not be forgotten by the operator. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists of the ordinary injec- 
tion through the arterial system, and the filling of the cav- 
ities, with the addition of the injection of fluid through the 
respiratory tract. If, after a few hours, purging of a bloody, 
frothy material should result, the body should be turned and 
pressure made upon the chest and diaphragm to force out the 
contents as much as possible; then the lungs should be filled 



410 CHAMPION TEXT HOOK OX EMBALMING 

again. If purging arises again, and appears to be obstinate, 
the lungs should be mutilated and fluid injected, as in a ease 
of obstinate purging in pneumonia. 

ANEMIA OF THE LUNGS. 

Anemia, of the lungs means a deficiency of blood in the 
lungs. It can be general or local. Besides hemorrhage ami 
other causes of general bloodlessness, certain local causes pro- 
duce anemia of the lungs. In pulmonary vesicular emphy- 
sema, and in senile atrophy, destruction of the capillaries is 
associated with anemia. Partial anemia of the lungs results 
from embolism of the branches of the bronchial artery sup- 
plying the part. The main vessel is rarely ever obstructed by 
an embolus. Compression or obliteration by the invasion of a 
malignant growth, or aneurism of the main division, more 
commonly occurs. Aneurism of the pulmonary artery, or of 
one of its blanches within the lung, usually causes anemia by 
pressure, or the same may result by an aneurism of the bron- 
chial artery. In extreme anemia, as by death from hemor- 
rhage, the lungs and the bronchial mucous membrane are ex- 
ceedingly pale from the absence of blood. They are un- 
changed in all respects, except that they are lighter in weight 
than normal. 

In the general disease known as auemia, the lungs, with the 
other organs, partake of the general deficiency of red blood. 
The lungs are of normal weight, but paler and more moist 
than natural, and are sometimes slightly edematous. The re- 
sults of pulmonary anemia are atrophy of its texture, as in 
senile emphysema, and in local deficiency of blood in partial 
obstruction of a large branch of the bronchial artery. Death, 
and the sloughing of the area of lung supplied by the bron- 
chial artery, results from complete destruction by embolism, 
or by an embolus. Hemorrhage, in these cases, occurs from 
sudden arrest of the circulation through a limited portion of 
the lung, which gives rise to stress in collateral circulation. 



DISEASES OF THE AIR-PASSAGES AND CHEST 411 

There will be leakage when the arteries are full, at least into 
the substance of the lung itself, if not from the mouth or nose. 

In atrophy of the lungs, there is wasting of the lung tissue 
from defective nutrition. It may occur in only a sm&ll por- 
tion, or it may involve the whole lung. The cause of simple 
atrophy of the lungs, is that general failure of nutrition 
which is natural to advanced life. Hereditary predisposition 
may determine an earlier failure of nutritive change in the 
lungs. Any cause that interferes with the circulation in the 
parts, will cause atrophy of that part; if it extends to the 
main vessel supplying nutriment to the lung, the whole lung- 
will be atrophied. 

The appearance of an atrophied lung may be seen best in a 
case of natural or senile atrophy. The lung is small, light, and 
more or less deeply colored ; is drier in texture and less firm 
and resisting than natural ; becomes pitted, on pressure, from 
want of elasticity; and is capable of being squeezed into a 
very small space. The air=cells are increased in size, and, 
if a portion of the lung be inflated and dried, large cells may 
be seen, evidently resulting from the coalescence of two or 
more infundibula. Filaments, or remnants of small bronchi, 
or blood=vessels, may extend across such cells. The pul- 
monary artery and its branches are diminished in size, and 
the walls of the bronchial tubes are much thinner than is 
normal. 

When atrophy of the lung is associated with, or the result 
of, other diseases, as emphysema or forcible collapse, the proc- 
ess is essentially the same, but is combined, in the formeF 
case, with an over=stretehing of the air=cells, and a thicken- 
ing, more or less, of the tissue derived from the bronchial 
walls. In this case, the lung is heavier, and there is more 
marked fatty degeneration of its fibrous tissue. Atrophy ol 
the lung, too, will follow from long=continued pressure of 
fluid in the pleura. The pleura is always thickened from th*- 



412 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

original inflammation, and the fibrous processes are directed 
inward from it between the lobules, so that expansion of the 
lung is rendered difficult. 

Treatment.— In either of the above cases the bronchial, or 
nutritive circulation of the lung is destroyed to a greater or 
less extent, so that when fluid is injected into the arterial 
system it will not reach the lung tissue, and the result will be 
similar to that of pneumonia in its second stage. Fluid does 
not reach the lungs through the pulmonary circulation; it 
only reaches them, when in normal condition, through the 
bronchia] portion of the general circulation. Therefore, in 
cases of this kind, fluid must positively be injected into the 
lungs through the bronchial tubes. P]ven these may be atro- 
phied or destroyed, so that it will be necessary to inject, in a 
few hours after the arterial injection is made, directly into 
the lung substance through the hollow=needle. Examine the 
pleural sacs, and, if they contain effusions, pump out the 
effused material and inject fluid in large quantities. The 
pericardium may be involved, and should be treated thor- 
oughly. Otherwise the cavities should be treated as in an 
ordinary case. 

OTHER DISEASES OF AIR-PASSAGES AND CHEST. 
Such as Laryngitis, Bronchitis, Etc. 

The embalmer should use his judgment in the treatment of 
these cases; there being no extensive morbid changes, no line 
of special treatment is necessary to be laid down. Usually, 
the tilling of the arteries and cavities with fluid is all that is 
necessary. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 



APPENDICITIS. 
Inflammation of the Appendix Vermiformis. 

The position of the appendix vermiformis is extremely 
variable. Frequently it lies behind the ilium, with its end 
pointing toward the left side of the abdomen ; or it may lie be- 
hind the cecum ; or upon the psoas muscle, with the end near 
the margin of the pelvis. It is found in almost every region 
of the abdomen. It may be in close contact with the bladder; 
or in the central portion of the abdomen, lying near the liver ; 
or at the left lower side of the abdomen, etc. Notwithstand- 
ing the popular idea, foreign bodies are not found frequently 
in the appendix. We have noticed in dissections but three 
cases containing foreign bodies; one contained a solid fecal 
substance; another, apple seeds; another, a hard concretion, 
supposed to be enteroliths. 

The appendix is often the seat of very extensive inflamma- 
tion, some recent, while others may have been a considerable 
time in the past. As a result, the appendix may be obliter- 
ated partially or totally. Sometimes, the end near the cecum 
is dilated enormously, even to the size of the finger, or larger ; 
it may be free or adherent. We have noticed one case in 
which an abscess was capsulated, containing quite an amount 
of fluid. In cases where perforation of the walls has taken 
place, the extent of peritonitis is variable. In some cases, 
the perforation excites a very diffuse and violent peritonitis, 
while in others, where adhesion has occurred, or, owing to the 
location, there may result only circumscribed peritonitis, and 
an intraperitoneal abscess of very small size may form. Per- 
foration may take place at the back part of the appendix, 
which is not covered with the peritoneum, and the inflamma- 

413 



414 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

tion mar occur over the psoas muscle in the neighborhood of 
the cecum only. As a result, an abscess may form in the 
pelvis or close to the sacrum. 

Large, circumscribed, fecal abscesses form, sometimes, in 
the iliac region, or at points midway between the navel ami 
anterior side of the ilium. Abscesses are liable to develop in 
almost any situation. One case is reported where an enor- 
mous abscess developed and pushed the diaphragm up to the 
second rib, producing the symptoms of pneumothorax. Per- 
foration of the pleura may have occurred, forming a fecal 
pleural fistula. Abscesses may burrow along the psoas mus- 
cle to the hip=bone, or may have pnssed into the neighborhood 
of the rectum, or abscesses may form even in the scrotum, or 
pass down in the back part into the gluteal region, forming 
large gluteal abscesses; even perforation into the bladder 
may have occurred, but it is uot common ; perforation into the 
bowel may have taken place, and large quantities of the pus 
may have been carried off in this manner. A case is reported 
in which the appendix was discharged through the anus. 
Hemorrhage may have occurred, in which case a great deal 
of blood is found in the region. Even such arteries as the 
internal iliac and deep circumflex iliac have been perforated. 

Treatment.— Iu cases of appendicitis, it can be seen, by 
careful study of the foregoing, that a great amount of tissue 
may be involved. When we consider the amount of purulent 
matter that may be formed in the body, as a result of this dis- 
ease, it is easy to understand why many of these cases are 
very troublesome to handle. They require very careful treat- 
ment to preserve them. On account of the tendency of the 
pus to burrow, it may be carried to remote points by gravi- 
tation. The pus forms an excellent soil for the rapid growth 
of the bacteria of putrefaction. 

The injection of fluid through the arteries will reach the 
normal tissues only, unless arteries in the neighborhood of 
the pus are perforated by the disease, forming an exit for the 






DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 415 

fluid that is injected into the arteries. Fluid must be injected 
into the cavities and mixed directly with the purulent matter 
in sufficient quantity to destroy, or prevent the growth of, 
putrefactive bacteria. 

If the body has not been opened by the surgeon for the re- 
lief of the sufferer, or cure of the disease, just prior to death, 
it will be impossible to know how much pus is contained 
within the several parts of the abdominal cavity, unless an 
incision is made into the cavity, to which operation embalm- 
ers are not in the habit of resorting. It is necessary to inject 
fluid beneath the posterior wall of the peritoneum and into 
every part of the abdominal cavity, using a large amount of 
fluid. When this is resorted to, the location of the aorta and 
its larger branches must always be kept in mind ; if not, the 
circulation may be destroyed. Then, too, it must, be remem- 
bered that the external iliac and the circumflex iliac are of 
large size, and, as stated before, they may be perforated ; if 
that be the case, arterial injection would only result in filling 
the cavities, as the perforation would destroy the circulation, 
preventing the filling of the tissues in the upper portions of 
the body. In a case where perforation has resulted, it will be 
necessary to tie the artery that has been perforated ; or to 
make pressure by a compress over the region, sufficient to 
prevent leakage; or to inject through the subcutaneous, cel- 
lular tissue, over the upper surfaces of the body. If the body 
is injected thoroughly, through the arteries, and the cavities 
are filled, a sufficient amount of fluid being mixed with the 
purulent matter contained in the cavities, the body will be 
preserved, and no trouble will result. 

OBSTINATE CONSTIPATION. 
Obstinate constipation is caused by intussusception, tor- 
sion, or knotting of the bowels, or by foreign bodies, or by 
stricture. Usually, the skin has an icteric or sallow appear- 
ance. The color of the contents of the intestinal canal and 
stomach — half-digested food, as partly=altered milk, meat, 
or vegetable matter — is brown, black, dark=green. or yellow. 
Sometimes the colon is distended so as almost to fill the ab- 



416 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

doinen. Ulceration of the mucous membrane, and perfor- 
ation of the intestinal walls, with extravasation into the ab- 
dominal cavity, often follow. Peritonitis may result. Ab- 
scesses may form in the cellular tissues around the rectum. 

The accumulation of fecal matter in the sigmoid flexure 
may be very excessive. Peacock reports ai case where fifteen 
quarts of semisolid, greenish=colored fecal matter were re- 
moved at The autopsy. Samazurier reports one of thirteen 
and a half pounds, and Chelins one of twenty=six pounds. 
Bristowe reports one where the whole length of the colon, 
from the anus to the cecum, was filled with semisolid, olive= 
green=colored feces, and the small intestine was tilled 
throughout with semifluid, olive=green contents. In compo- 
sition the mass consists of fecal matter with unaltered vege- 
table fiber.; ii may he composed partly of the skin of grapes, 
cherry=stones, biliary calculi, hair, woody fiber, magnesia, 
or other foreign substances. 

Treatment. — After removing the gases, withdraw the 
blood and fill the tissues through the arteries; then treat the 
viscera very thoroughly. If the colon is filled with semi- 
fluid and semisolid matter, remove it, if possible, by aspira- 
tion. This matter should he removed at all hazard, even if an 
incision has to he made for this purpose; if an incision is 
necessary, make it in the median line above the pubic arch. 
After removal of these contents, fill the stomach and intes- 
tines, and inject fluid around the organs, filling the abdom- 
inal cavity. Then place tin 1 body on the level, elevating the 
head. 

DYSENTERY— FLUX. 
By dysentery is meant a disease of the large intestine, which 
may appear sporadically, but appears more frequently in epi- 
demics. It is undoubtedly infectious. The bacterium pro- 
ducing the disease, however, is not yet determined. The dis- 
ease prevails in the tropical countries, where it is much more 
violent ami widespread than in the North. In the northern 
climate most of the epidemics occur in the latter part of sum- 
mer and in autumn. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 417 

In severe cases, the inflammation is very extensive, involv- 
ing not only the rectum, but the greater part of the colon. 
The affected membrane, on examination after death, is found 
to be reddened, congested, swollen, softened, pulpy, present- 
ing, in different cases, ecchymoses, excoriations (from peel- 
ing off of the epithelium), abrasions, and ulcerations in 
greater or less numbers, the latter being sometimes small and 
sometimes of considerable size. The ulcers may or may not 
be seated in the internal glands. The swelling of the mem- 
brane is due to submucous infiltration, and the latter is some- 
times so great, at certain points, as to give rise to protuber- 
ances which resemble warty growths. The protuberances 
may be more or less numerous, and sometimes coalesce, giv- 
ing to the surface a lobulated appearance. Patches of ex- 
uded fibrin are adherent, frequently, to the inflamed mem- 
brane, presenting a greenish or brownish color. The intes- 
tine contains more or less morbid material, as pus, fibrinous 
flakes, and bloody, serous liquid. The intestine may present 
a dark, almost black appearance, from congestion. Sloughing 
and ulceration are present. As a rule, the appearances de- 
note progressively a greater amount of disease in passing 
from the upper part of the large intestine downward to the 
anus, the greater amount being in the rectum and sigmoid 
flexure of the colon. Sometimes the mesenteric glands are 
enlarged considerably, and in some instances contain pus. 
The disease usually is confined to the rectum and the lower 
part of the large intestine, but sometimes it extends higher up 
in the colon, producing ulcerations and involving the mesen- 
teries, which is followed by peritonitis. 

Treatment. — If inflammation of the peritoneum has re- 
sulted, it should be treated as directed in the treatment for 
peritonitis. Gases will be present in the large intestine, 
which must be removed, and fluid injected in sufficient quan- 
tity to fill the colon and rectum. The cavities should be 
treated in the usual manner, and an artery raised and in- 
jected, filling all the (issues of the body. 



418 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

CHOLERA INFANTUM 

This disease is peculiar to infantile life. It rarely attack? 
children above t wo years of age. Great emaciation commonly 
results; and usually death occurs during the second or third 
day. Rigor mortis comes <m soon after death and passes off 
within the hour. The mucous membrane of the large and 
small intestines is of a dark=reddish color. There is more 
or less softening and congestion of the cerebral tissues. 

Treatment. — As decomposition commences soon after 
death, prompt treatment should follow. The body should be 
placed on the board in the usual manner and washed thor- 
oughly, filling the openings with fluid; the carotid or femoral 
artery may be raised and fluid injected ; or the tissues can be 
filled by one of the needle processes. The thoracic and ab- 
dominal cavities should be filled in the usual manner. 

HERNIA OR RUPTURE. 

The morbid changes in hernia or rupture are confined to 
the lower part of the abdomen, especially in the inguinal 
canal. The inflammation that is produced may result in 
peritonitis. 

Treatment. — A case of this kind should be treated as a 
case of peritonitis; otherwise the treatment should be the 
same as in an ordinary case. 

JAUNDICE. 
Jaundice is not strictly a disease of itself, but is really a 
symptom of a disease. It occurs in nearly all of the hepatic 
disorders, or diseases of the liver, such as hepatitis (inflam- 
mation of the liver), cirrhosis (hobnailed liver), phlebitis 
I inflammation of a vein), cancer, renal colic (passage of gall- 
stones), and such troubles as may affect the ducts, causing 
congestion of the mucous membrane, sufficient to close the 
duct. It also occurs in many of the constitutional diseases, 
such as septicemia, puerpnral fever, remittent fever, etc. In 
several of these diseases, the amount of discoloration is very 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 419 

extensive, as in cirrhosis, cancer, hepatitis, etc. ; in others, it 
is present only in a slight degree. It is due, in all cases, 
to the presence of biliverdin, or bile pigment, in the blood,, 
which is reabsorbed in the liver after its secretion. 

Bile is secreted by the liver and is thrown off during diges- 
tion, being carried through the ducts to the duodenum, or 
upper portion of the small intestine. During the interval 
between the digestion of a meal and the next meal, the bile 
is deposited in the gall=bladder, which serves as a reservoir 
for the excretion during the intervening period, as bile seems 
to be secreted constantly. If, perchance, the ducts are 
closed, as from diseases of the liver, or from one of the dis- 
eases which affects the ducts indirectly, producing conges- 
tion or closure, the bile cannot pass off through its natural 
channel. It is then reabsorbed by the liver, and taken up 
by the hepatic veins and carried into general circulation. 
From the right side of the heart, it passes through the lungs 
and throughout the whole arterial circulation, and is 
deposited in all the tissues of the body. 

The biliverdin, that causes general discoloration of the 
surface of the body, is deposited in the soft layer of the skin, 
known as the pigment layer, and in the subcutaneous tissues. 
If life continues after the ducts are reopened, and the bile 
passes off in its natural channel, the bile=pigment is taken 
up or reabsorbed from the tissues by the blood and thrown 
off through the usual excretory organs. But when death 
occurs during this jaundiced condition, the bilverdin will re- 
main where it is deposited and cannot be .removed; no 
bleacher will have any effect upon it. 

Treatment. — Jaundice does not bring about a condition 
that is hard to preserve, but the disease which causes it may 
induce a morbid condition that will require special treatment 
to preserve the case; for instance, in cirrhosis there may be 
extensive dropsical effusions. In hepatitis, cancer, etc., 
dropsical effusions may exist, from a mere extension of the 



420 CHAMPION TEXT-HOOK OX EMBALMING 

skin, sufficient to cause the person to look as though he were 
only gaining a little flesh, to distention of the body, sufficient 
to be designated anasarca. When dropsy is present, it al- 
ways interferes with the circulation of fluid. Pressure upon 
the small arteries and capillaries may be sufficient to pre- 
vent fluid entering the tissues. If a complete circulation of 
fluid is not possible, putrefaction will not be arrested. 

Again, in cases of dropsical effusion, the presence of such 
an enormous amount of moisture will increase the tendency 
to putrefaction, especially in warm weather. A case of this 
kind should he treated as directed in dropsy, without refer- 
ence to the jaundiced condition, or discoloration from the 
presence of biliverdin. The water should be removed as 
far as possible, and, when the body has been embalmed thor- 
oughly, to produce the best effect, it should be placed in a 
room with the curtains drawn in such a manner as to darken 
the room completely. 

Biliverdin is a permanent color, and nothing can remove 
it or bleach it out in a dead body. It is always best to ex- 
plain to the family that they need not expect a perfect case, 
that the discoloration cannot be removed, but that it can be 
modified in some cases. With their permission the room 
can be so arranged, with the aid of artificial light, properly 
placed, that the case may be made to look almost perfectly 
natural in color. 

INTESTINAL CATARRH. 

In the majority of cases of intestinal catarrh, the condi- 
tions are due to an abnormal irritation of the mucous mem- 
brane of the intestines by their contents, similar to that of 
gastric catarrh. The irritants are of a mechanical or chemi- 
cal nature, in most cases, and depend, principally, upon the 
quantity and quality of the food, which explains why catarrh 
of the stomach and of the intestines are found so frequently 
to accompany each other. Tf noxious substances are taken 
into the system, by the ingestion of spoiled food, like spoiled 
meat, fish, beer, and many other things, they play a part very 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 421 

often in the origin of intestinal catarrh. To the toxic 
catarrhs, which are produced by taking into the digestive 
tract poisonous substances, may be added the intestinal 
catarrhs caused by improper food. The intestinal mucous 
membrane is found severely inflamed, by the taking into 
the system of certain poisons by mistake, or with suicidal 
intent, such as the mineral acids and corrosive alkalis, 
arsenic, corrosive sublimate, etc. Imprudent use of certain 
drugs, especially active cathartics, may induce intestinal 
catarrh. 

Then a great many cases of intestinal catarrh are due to 
infectious influences, such as those that are apparently 
spontaneous, or attributed to taking cold or getting wet, 
and those that develop epidemically in hot weather, which 
are termed cholera morbus, summer complaint, summer 
diarrhea, etc. Both sexes and all ages are predisposed to 
intestinal catarrh. There is a pronounced tendency to this 
disease in children ; in fact a greater number of deaths 
among children is produced, especially during the summer 
months, by inflammation of the alimentary tract than by 
any other cause. 

The pathological changes are similar to those met with in 
the inflammation of other mucous membranes. The mucous 
coat is swollen and red, secretion of mucous is increased, and 
purulent products on the surface of the membrane, and cellu- 
lar infiltration of the tissues, are found in severe cases. The 
glands, both solitary and agminated, are swollen, finally be- 
coming ulcerated. In severe cases, superficial erosions are 
frequent on the remainder of the mucous membrane. The 
mucous membrane, in long-continued cases, becomes thick- 
ened, which makes the surface uneven and puffy; the con- 
nective tissue becomes increased in thickness and results in 
a studded appearance. There is cystic degeneration of the 
follicles, due to the retention of the intestinal juices, caused 
by the occlusion of the mouths of the follicles. 

Treatment. — In cases in which tin's disease is due to 1' e 
ingestion of spoiled food or of oilier poisonous substances, as 



422 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

mentioned above, there will be present the bacteria of putre- 
faction. The amount of secretion varies greatly in differ- 
ent cases; but in all cases there is sufficient to furnish a 
proper soil for the growth of bacteria, resulting in putre- 
faction, which, if the case is not properly treated, 
progresses very rapidly. These cases, as already stated, 
usually occur during the hot summer months, when heat 
and moisture are 'present to a sufficient degree for the rapid 
growth of bacteria. Therefore, in the treatment of these 
cases, the cavities should be filled very carefully. The ali- 
mentary canal should receive enough fluid to disinfect and 
sterilize its contents thoroughly. Several quarts should be 
injected into the abdominal cavity alone. Effusions are 
found, sometimes, in the pleural sacs, which should receive 
special attention. All tissues of the body should be filled 
through the arterial system. 

SPORADIC CHOLERA— CHOLERA MORBUS. 

Cholera morbus is an affection of the mucous membrane of 
the stomach and intestines, characterize'/! by violent pain in 
the abdomen, nausea, violent and incessant vomiting, and by 
purging of watery fluid. The disease is not contagious, 
and rarely proves fatal, although a state approaching col- 
lapse sometimes occurs, which is followed, usually, by a re- 
action. Even when the symptoms are the most severe during 
life, we do not always find morbid changes sufficient to ac- 
count for the cause of death. Usually there are evidences 
of gastrointestinal catarrh; the mucous membrane is con- 
gested throughout; the solitary glands and Peyer's patches 
are swollen and prominent; the blood is dark and thickened; 
the kidneys are congested and large. The appearance may 
resemble that of Asiatic cholera. 

Treatment. — The gas should be removed from the large 
and small intestines, and fluid should be injected before the 
needle is removed. The peritoneum should be treated care- 
fully, the cavities filled in the usual manner; fluid should be 
injected through the arteries in sufficient quantity to fill all 
the tissues of the body. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 423 

OTHER DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 

Such as Gastritis, Enteritis, Colitis, and Entercolitis, usually known as 

Inflammation of the Bowels, etc. 

The morbid changes in these diseases are confined to the 
parts affected, except when perforation, or extensive and 
deep inflammation, exists, usually involving the peritoneum, 
causing peritonitis, as in inflammation of the stomach and 
intestines, both large and small. Cancer may involve the 
liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, and bladder. 

Treatment. — In all such cases treat the abdominal cavity 
very thoroughly, besides the usual general treatment of the 
vascular system. The stomach and intestines should be filled 
with fluid. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 



DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER. 



BRIGHT'S DISEASE. 

Acute Bright's Disease; Waxy Bright's Disease; Cirrhotic Bright's 

Disease- 

There are at least three different diseases of the kidneys 
which are known as Bright's disease. Eaeli of these mala- 
dies involves either one or the other of the structures of the 
organs, and only secondarily affects the others. For in 
stance, one disease originates in the uriniferous tubules; one 
in the blood-vessels, particularly in the Malpighian tufts; 
and the other in the fibrinous stroma. The first is known as 
inflammatory, and may be either acute or chronic; the second 
as waxy or amyloid; and the third as cirrhotic or gouty. 

Acute Bright's Disease. 

The first, or acute Bright's disease, is an acute or chronic 
affection of the kidneys, caused by exposure to cold, or by 
scarlatina, or by other blood diseases, consisting of inflam- 
mation of the elements, passing through the various stages 
of transformation, namely, inflammatory enlargement, fatty 
degeneration, and atrophy. There is usually present, iu 
the earlier stages, diminution of urine, albuminuria, frequent 
hemorrhage causing blood in the urine, tube=casts, and 
dropsy; changes in the heart, blood-vessels, and other organs 
follow, death having been caused by dropsy, uremia, or some 
other complication. 

Waxy Bright's Disease. 
The second, or waxy Bright's disease, is a chronic affection 
of the kidneys, caused by tuberculosis, syphilis, caries, sup- 
puration, and other exhausting diseases, consisting in waxy 



DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER 425 

or amyloid degeneration of the Malpighian bodies, small ar- 
teries, and sometimes other parts, with, in many cases, trans- 
udation into the tubules. Usually, in this disease, there is 
albuminous urine, the absence of dropsj^, and waxy disease 
of other organs, such as the liver, spleen, and intestinal canal. 
Death is caused usually by exhaustion, uremia, or coexisting 
affections of the kidneys or other organs. 

Cirrhotic Bright's Disease. 

The third, or cirrhotic Bright's disease, is a chronic affec- 
tion of the kidneys, caused generally by the abuse of alcohol, 
sometimes by the poison of gout, occasionally by plumbism 
or other conditions. This causes increase of the fibrinous 
stroma, with thickening of the capsule of the kidney, and 
the ultimate atrophy of the organ. There is present al- 
buminuria, enlargement of the heart, polyuria, edema of the 
lungs, and uremia. Death usually results from uremia, 
edema of the lungs, or other intercurrent affections. 

In the inflammatory form the kidney is enlarged ; its cap- 
sule strips off readily; its surface appears more or less red, 
sometimes of a deep=purple color ; and occasionally extra- 
vasations of blood are present in its substance. On section, 
the cortical substance is found to be increased in bulk. Its 
vessels, as well as those of the cones, are congested. Its 
structure appears somewhat coarser than usual, while its 
convoluted tubes often present an opaque appearance, and 
sometimes contain blood. Fatty transformation follows, 
there being yellowish, opaque, sebaceous=looking material in 
patches, mingled with more natural structure. In some 
cases, there may be atrophy of the kidney, the organ being 
reduced to, or even below, the natural size. Its capsule 
will strip off with little difficulty and without tearing the 
surface. The surface is smooth, presenting a pure example, 
with little or no mottling. The small arteries are thicker 
and more prominent, all their coats, but especially the mid- 
dle, being increased in volume. Many of the tubules are 



42G CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

atrophied, but the epithelium of such as are not involved is 
for the most part natural. Cysts are numerous, and are 
found in connection with the tubules, the Malpighian bodies, 
and the cells. 

These peculiarities of the kidneys are mentioned merely for 
the purpose of showing to the undertaker the morbid condi- 
tions that take place during the disease; not that he will 
derive much benefit, in the preservation of cases, by the use 
of embalming fluids, but it is the organs of the body that 
arc affected by complication that give the greatest trouble. 
Dropsy of the feet and ankles, thickening, sclerosis, and 
atheroma of the arteries, causes the waxy affection of other 
organs, especially of the liver, which is enlarged, its margin 
being usually felt and sharply defined below the ribs. The 
spleen is increased in size also; the blood is lighter in color, 
the white corpuscles being increased, and the red rather 
flabby. There is a peculiar appearance of the eye, from 
edema of the conjunctiva, a hypertrophied condition of the 
heart, and the vessels become sclerosed and degenerated. 

In some cases, there is a great deal of dropsical effusion, 
while in others there is none at all. Even in some bodies 
there will be found pleuritic adhesions (pleurisy being one 
of the sequela), inflammation of the bronchial tubes, or 
pneumonia. The chief organic changes are fatty degenera- 
tion, cirrhosis, and syphilitic affections of the different 
organs of the body, especially of the liver. The surface is 
pale and pasty, and the eyelids are found edematous. This 
peculiar appearance will be found in many cases. The sur- 
face will sometimes be of that light jaundiced color, which 
cannot be removed, it being permanent. It may be modified 
by the injection of a good bleaching fluid into the capillaries 
through the arteries. 

Treatment. — As will be observed, the lungs are involved 
frequently, either by the presence of pneumonia or medias- 
tinal congestion. In either case it will be necessary to treat 
the lungs carefully, and in many cases there will be compli- 






DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER 427! 

cations, so that it is best to treat the lungs specially in all 
cases. True, there may be hydrothorax, so that it will be 
necessary to aspirate the pleural cavities and inject fluid. 
The amyloid condition of the liver, spleen, and other organs 
of the abdominal cavity, will make it necessary to treat these 
organs by the direct operation through the hollow=needle, 
as the circulation within them will be partially or entirely 
destroyed. Otherwise the body should be injected in the 
usual manner, filling the arteries and cavities, which will 
be all that is required for preservation and disinfection. 

NEPHRITIS. 
Inflammation of the Kidney. 

Dropsy is always present in nephritis. It may be slight 
or excessive. Otherwise the body will be in a condition 
similar to Bright's disease, and will require the same treat- 
ment. 

DIABETES. 
Sugar in the Urine. 

Diabetes is not a disease of the kidneys, as was formerly 
supposed. The organs merely excrete sugar contained in the 
blood brought to them by the renal arteries. The sugar in 
the blood increases the functional activity of the kidneys, 
acting like a diuretic, and hence the quantity of urine is 
greatly increased. 

This disease has no constant anatomical character, aside 
from lesions belonging to concomitant or consecutive affec- 
tions. The kidneys are often enlarged or hypertrophied, 
atrophied, or contain abscesses. The blood contains sugar. 
It has been found in the saliva, in the infusions, in the serous 
cavities, in the humors of the eye, and in the spermatic fluid. 

Pulmonary affections, such as pneumonia or tuberculosis, 
are frequent complications. Desquamation of the cuticle 
often exists. Roils, and sometimes large abscesses, are found 
in different parts of the body; also, gangrene, or ulceration 
without gangrene, of the lower extremities. Edema of the 
legs often occurs. 



4i»S CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

Treatment. — The treatment in those cases depends en- 
tirely upon the amount <>f tissues involved by complication. 
Inject the vascular system and cavities thoroughly in every 
case. If dropsy is present, which is frequently the case, 
adopt the usual means of removing water from the 
tissues. If abscesses or gangrene are present, use hardening 
compound, as directed under the head of gangrene. These 
cases should he handled carefully, as, the tissues, being filled 
more or less with water, there is a liability to "skin=slip." 
For this reason a little formalin might he added to the fluid, 
to harden the skin. 

DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 

The bladder may he the seat of the following morbid con- 
ditions: inflammation with acute or chronic abscess; atrophy 

or hypertrophy; mechanical distention with chronic engorge- 
ment; the retention of urine; tumors or other growths; 
epithelioma and carcinoma; tubercular disease; ulceration; 
vesicovaginal or vesicointestinal fistula. It may contain 
blood or purulent material. 

Treatment. — The trocar should he introduced immedi- 
ately above the pubic arch in the median line, directing it 
inward and downward to reach into the bladder. Withdraw 
all liquid matter and inject fluid, mixing it thoroughly with 
the contents, filling the organ as full as possible. Other- 
wise, 'he body should be treated in the usual manner. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 



DISEASES OF THE NERVES. 



PARALYSIS. 

Paralysis means the loss of voluntary motion in the mus- 
cles of the body which are controlled by the will. The com- 
plete loss of the power of active motion is termed paralysis, 
while the mere weakening of it is termed paresis. In com- 
plete paralysis of any part of the body, or of a single muscle, 
the slightest voluntary motion cannot be produced in it; 
while in paresis in a diseased part, certain movements are 
still possible, they are more or less below the normal in 
strength, extent, and duration. 

A study of the pathological conditions, resulting from dis- 
eases of the nervous system, will undoubtedly throw light 
upon these cases. From the manner in which the nervous 
and vascular systems interlock, all diseases and pathological 
conditions of the body are inseparably related to one another. 
The modes of interference with the functions of the vascular 
system, through the changed nervous action, are few and 
simple. The heart, under the influence of modified nervous 
stimulation, may depart from its customary order and rate 
of contraction ; it may be more rapid or slower in its number 
of beats per minute; it may be stronger or weaker than nor- 
mal. The small arteries, over a greater or less extent of the 
body, may be diminished in caliber; or they may become un- 
duly dilated; but, save for such changes as these, and their 
direct consequences, the work of the vascular system, under 
the above conditions, is carried on as if such changes had not 
taken place. 

On the other hand, diseases of the nervous system may be 
induced by an altered quality of the blood, or by changes in 
the action of the heart or some other part of the vascular 

429 



430 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

system. The entire function of the system may be degraded, 
owing to the fact of its receiving an inadequate amount of 
blood from the slowly acting or feeble heart; or the functions 
of that part of the system may be interfered with by an un- 
due contraction or dilatation of the small arteries, or by an 
impediment in the outflow of blood, producing mechanical 
congestion. 

Again the complete or partial arrest in the flow of blood in 
the vessels of some important region, owing to thrombosis or 
embolism therein, or the rupture of one of the branches of 
such a vessel with extravasation of blood into the organ, may 
impair or destroy the functions of that particular part. Both 
local perversion of function and change in structure in the 
nervous system, are produced more frequently by an altered 
quality of blood, or a change in the vessels of the part, than 
by an actual morbid change in the nervous tissue. 

Thus, it can be seen that, at times, the vessels in the para- 
lyzed parts, as say one upper or one lower extremity, or even 
one=half of the body, will be contracted to a very small cal- 
iber; or possibly they will be dilated unduly. In either case, 
there will be an entire arrest of the flow of blood in the ves- 
sels, owing to a blood=clot; or, it is possible there will be 
rupture of the branch or branches of some vessel, with ex- 
travasations of blood in the organ. A large amount of blood 
may be found in the arteries. The arteries may not have 
emptied after death, owing to the non=eon traction of the 
arteries and capillaries on one side of the body, producing a 
congestion of the surface, whereby redness may follow; but 
ih is result docs not occur in all cases. 

Treatment. — In some cases, especially those in which the 
arteries are dilated, a complete circulation of the fluid will 
follow, while in others it may be only partial. In still other 
cases, the circulation of fluid in the diseased part will not 
take place at all. In a case where it is impossible to inject 
sufficient fluid in^o the parts that are paralyzed through the 
arterial system, fluid should be injected through the cellular 
i issue on the upper surfaces. The artery should be raised o.u 



DISEASES OF THE NERVES 431 

the side or in au extremity that is not paralyzed, and as much 
fluid should be injected as is necessary to fill the capillaries. 
If it is found that none has passed into the paralyzed parts, 
then the cellular injection should follow. The cavities, the 
alimentary canal, and the lungs should be treated in the 
usual manner. 

APOPLEXY— CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE. 

The cause of cerebral hemorrhage or apoplexy is found in 
some cases in the ends of the minute cerebral arteries. In 
1886, it was first shown by Charcot and Bouchard that, in 
almost every case of cerebral hemorrhage, there are miliary 
aneurisms of the small arteries of the brain substance, allow- 
ing the blood to escape. All later investigators have con- 
firmed their discovery, and the importance of these miliary 
aneurisms. 

Osier, in his recent work, states that one of the changes 
which may lead directly to apoplexy is "the production of 
miliary aneurisms, rupture of which is the more common 
cause of cerebral hemorrhage. . . . They occur most fre- 
quently on the central arteries, but also on the smaller 
branches of the cortical vessels. On section of the brain sub- 
stance, they may be seen as localized, small, dark bodies, 
about the size of a pin's head. Sometimes they are seen in 
numbers upon the arteries when carefully withdrawn from 
the anterior perforated spaces." 

These aneurisms may attain the diameter of a millimeter 
or more. They usually appear like spindle-shaped dilita- 
tions of the entire circumference of the vessels, although 
sometimes the bulging is found to one side. Endoarteritis or 
periarteritis, occuring in the cerebral vessels, usually leads 
to apoplexy, by the production of aneurisms either large or 
small. It is stated that there are certain cases in which the 
most careful search fails to reveal anything but the diffuse 
degeneration of the vessels, particularly of the smaller 
branches, which indicates that spontaneous rupture may 
occur without the previous formation of aneurisms. 

The process of the development of aneurisms, starts with 
disease of the inner coat. This layer or coat presents diffuse 



432 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

proliferations, and also a fatty degeneration of the endo- 
thelium. Later on, the inner and the middle or muscular 
coats become hard or atrophied. The disease of the vascular 

wall, which leads to the formation of these aneurisms, is iden- 
tical with ordinary hardening of the walls, or atheroma. We 
very often find that cerebral hemorrhage attacks persons who 
present either general arterial sclerosis, or a more limited 
atheromatous condition of the cerebral arteries, and most of 
the factors, which are said to promote cerebral hemorrhage, 
are the same as favor the development of these hard arterial 
walls. 

Hemorrhage of the meninges (coverings of the brain) may 
be outside the dura mater, between it and the bone, or inside 
the dura mater, between it and the arachnoid, or between the 
arachnoid and the pia mater. Fracture of the skull is one of 
the chief causes of this form of hemorrhage, which results, 
usually, from ulceration of the meningeal vessels, or from the 
torn sinuses (veins). The blood may be found either on the 
outside of the dura mater, or between it and the arachnoid. 
Another cause is the rupture of aneurisms in the larger cere- 
bral vessels; then the blood is found, usually, in the subarach- 
noid spaces. 

Meningeal hemorrhage may occur in the constitutional dis- 
eases and fevers. Blood will be found in large quantities at 
the base, but may extend into the cord. The Sylvian fissures 
are found distended witli blood, owing to the frequency of the 
aneurism in tin 1 middle cerebral vessels. Hemorrhage in the 
cerebellum is not uncommon, and usually comes from the 
cerebral artery. It has long been recognized that age has a 
bearing in these cases, although sometimes a young person 
may be attacked. The majority of sufferers are over fifty 
years of age. This is at the time of life when the coats of the 
arteries may be indurated (hard). Cerebral hemorrhage is 
more frequent in men than in women, which is also tine 
of atheroma. Alcoholism, syphilis, and gout are reckoned 
among the causes of the above disorders, and the hereditary 
predisposition is very rarely demonstrable. 



DISEASES OF THE NERVES 433 

The "apoplectic habit" also deserves mention. It is de- 
scribed as a person who is not very tall, corpulent, broad 
chested, with a short, thick neck, and round face. They are 
inclined to the pleasures of the table, and sometimes they suf- 
fer from emphysema, moderate hypertrophy (enlargement) 
of the heart, and general induration (hardening) of the coats 
of the arteries, as the condition of the radial and temporary 
arteries may disclose even during life. At least the coats of 
the arteries must be diseased in all cases of cerebral hemor- 
rhage, because, if the arteries were normal, they could not 
possibly be torn, no matter how great the arterial tension be- 
came; but, if aneurisms have already been developed, then the 
persistent or even temporary elevation of the blood pressure 
must favor the bursting of the walls. Cerebral hemorrhage, 
for example, may follow severe muscular exertion, the in- 
gestion of a large amount of food, indulgence in alcohol, tak- 
ing a cold bath, or violent exertion of any kind. In cases of 
recent apoplexy, where death follows soon after the attack, 
usually the surface is found congested, and the capillaries 
and blood=vessels about the face and neck full of blood, suf- 
ficient to cause extensive discoloration. 

Treatment. — It becomes necessary in these cases to with- 
draw blood from the heart, either by the direct operation or 
through the veins. The blood does not coagulate any sooner 
than in the ordinary case. Fluid should be injected through 
the arteries in sufficient quantity to fill the capillaries of the 
whole body; it is well to inject a large amount; in a body 
weighing one hundred and sixty pounds, at least one gallon 
shoald be injected into the arteries. If that amount or more 
is injected into the arterial system, the fluid will reach the 
brain substance through the intact arteries and penetrate the 
parts wherein the circulation is destroyed. The cavities 
should l»e relieved of gases and filled in the usual manner; 
then the body should be placed on a level, with the head 
slightly elevated. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 



CANCEROUS AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 



MALIGNANT TUMORS— CANCERS. 

Cancers are internal or external, soft or hard. Internally, 
the liver and stomach are most frequently the seat of cancer, 
followed by that of the womb, in the female, but they may be 
found in almost any other organ or structure. Externally, 
the parts exposed, as the face, neck, and hands, and in the 
female, the breast, are the most frequent seat of the disease. 
The surfaces of these cancers are usually denuded of skin, 
and are soft and ulcerated. 

Treatment. — Internal cancers should be treated directly 
with the hollow=needle, in addition to the general treatment 
of the body. In cancer of the womb, a pledget of cotton, tilled 
with fluid, should be introduced into the vagina. 

External cancers should be cleansed thoroughly with hot 
water and sprinkled with a thick layer of hardening com- 
pound ; the whole then covered with bleached muslin or some 
other white fabric. It has been recommended that if the face 
is involved, the parts may be built up with plaster of Paris 
and treated with pigments. This practice may be well 
enough in the hands of an artist, but, with an ordinary oper- 
ator, it will result, most likely, in failure. The friends can- 
not expect the features to look natural ; if the parts are 
cleansed and thoroughly deodorized, and dried by the use of 
hardening compound, and are covered with a white cloth, the 
results will be satisfactory. 

CANCER OF THE STOMACH. 
Cancer of the stomach is a malignant disease, death re- 
sulting sooner or later. The stomach is the scat of cancer 
more frequently than is any other organ of the body. Cancer 

434 



CANCEROUS AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 435 

of the stomach is almost always primary ; consequently, sec- 
ondary malignant affections of the stomach are exceedingly 
rare. The tendency to the disease increases with age. Men 
seem to be about twice as liable to gastric cancer as women. 
In a large number of cases there seems to be a hereditary 
predisposition to the disease, as it is often seen that more 
than one member of a family is affected. Neither anxiety, 
poverty, nor intemperance seems to influence the development 
of the disease. All varieties of cancer are met with in the 
stomach. The scirrhous or hard cancer is the most frequent 
form. According to Brintdn, about seventy=two per cent, of 
all cases are scirrhous. Other forms may exist alone or in 
combination with scirrhous. 

Cancer usually begins in the submucous tissue and spreads 
from this to the other coats. The muscular structure varies 
in appearance in different cases. In some, the normal tissue 
is partially destroyed, and, what appears to the naked eye as 
a muscle, under the microscope, proves to be a mass of 
cancer=cells and fibers. In other cases, even at some dis- 
tance from the disease, the muscular fibers are found very 
much increased in thickness, and the contractile fiber=cells 
are greatly enlarged. The presence of the new growth stops 
nutrition, so that the muscular fibers in the walls of the 
stomach seem to be reduced to a mere mass of fibrous threads. 
This takes place at the same time in the mucous membrane 
lining the wall of the stomach. The glandular tissue over 
the tumor usually is destroyed, leaving nothing but cells and 
fibers to represent the original textures. The glandular 
structure is always disorganized at a distance from the origi- 
nal disease. This is most marked in hard cancer. In most 
cases, the cancer attacks the orifices of the stomach; this oc- 
curs most frequently at the pyloric or small end. According 
to Brinton, about sixty per cent, of all cases are located at 
the pylorus, about thirteen per cent, affect the cardiac orifice, 
while the fundus is scarcely ever primarily affected. Can- 
cer always has the tendency to spread in a transverse direc- 



^HH 



4:51! CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 

tion through the organ, so that stricture is a common result. 
It scarcely ever implicates the duodenum, and seldom appears 
at I he cardiac orifice without spreading to the lower end of 
the esophagus. 

As is seen above, cancer affects the structure of the 
stomach, changing it entirely; it also changes the circula- 
tion, destroying the capillaries and vessels, not only in the 
stomach, but, as the disease spreads, in the liver and the 
surrounding organs. Much tissue may he involved, requir- 
ing special attention by the embaliner. 

Treatment. — A peculiar appearance of the surface or skin 
is always met with in cases of cancer, which is called a can- 
cerous cachexia. This becomes more or less marked during 
the course of the disease, and exists in the tissues after 
death. It consists of a paleness of the lips and a greenish, 
or slightly jaundiced, hue of the skin. This will remain, 
with some modification, after the injection of fluid. Bleachers 
applied to the surface w ill not affect it in the least, although 
the injection of fluid into the capillaries of the skin and sub- 
cutaneous tissues will modify it to a degree. Fluid does 
not enter the cancerous structure, because of the destruction 
of the circulation, by ordinary injection, therefore, it is 
necessary to inject fluid into the diseased parts through the 
hollow=needle. The diseased organs should be punctured in 
every part, mutilating them as much as possible, and fluid 
should be injected into and over the surface in large quanti- 
ties. Cancerous structure, on account of the destruction of 
the circulation in the diseased organs, should be treated in 
this manner in every part of the body. 

CANCER OF THE LIVER. 

Cancer of tin 1 liver is seldom primary, but generally is met 
with as a secondary disease. V>y secondary, we mean that the 
liver becomes cancerous after ether organs have been affected 
with cancer. It follows most frequently when the primary 



CANCEROUS AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 437 

growth is found in the portal system, intestines, rectum, eso- 
phagus, or pancreas. Sometimes the projection of the pri- 
mary growth in the lumen of a branch of the portal vein has 
been demonstrated, thus furnishing the obvious source for 
cancer in the liver. 

These cancers are found both within the organ and upon 
its surface ; if upon the surface, they form flattened protuber- 
ances, which are dippled in the middle. The liver may be 
greatly enlarged — so much so, if the new growth is very ex- 
tensive, as to occupy a great portion of the abdominal cavity. 
If the case is one of primary cancer, which is very unusual, 
it may be found either in the form of large nodules, or some 
diffused cancerous infiltration, pervading the greater part of 
the organ, without complication of either of the above men- 
tioned organs of digestion. 

Hepatic cancer is most frequent in advanced life, say from 
forty to sixty years. Special causes of cancer are not known. 
It seems possible, sometimes, to trace a hereditary predis- 
position; but, in many cases, gali=stones seem to start the 
development. Frequentlv, in these cases, there will be peri- 
toneal dropsy and enlargement of the spleen from the pressure 
on the portal vein, and jaundice from pressure on the bile= 
ducts. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of a case of cancer of the 
liver, if ascites is present, the peritoneum should be tapped 
and the water removed. The arterial system should be in- 
jected thoroughly; then ordinary injection of the cavities, 
without reference to the treatment of the liver or the cancer 
itself, should follow. After the usual treatment in this 
manner, the body should be allowed to remain upon the board 
for twelve hours or more. At the end of that time the tis- 
sues will have absorbed the fluid that has been injected 
through the arteries, and the viscera of the cavities (except 
the liver) will have absorbed a sufficient quantity to preserve 
the several organs. Then it will be necessary to puncture 
the liver in many places, or even to break it up; ai least, it 



43S CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

should be broken up as much as possible, and fluid injected 
into all parts of the organ, as the circulation in the liver is 
more or less destroyed. The vessels and capillaries have been 
destroyed, as a result of the abnormal growth of the liver, 
therefore, the liquid injected through the arteries will not 
be sufficient to reach all parts of the organ; hence, the neces- 
sity for breaking up the abnormal growth and injecting fluid 
throughout, as directed. 

BENIGN TUMORS. 

By a benign (not malignant) tumor is meant a more or less 
circumscribed mass, growing in some tissue or organ of the 
body, and dependent on a morbid excess of, or deviation from, 
the normal nutrition of the part. Tumors are of many varie- 
ties, and may be found in every portion of the body. Cystic 
tumors of the ovary, which sometimes attain an enormous 
magnitude, are the kind that most requires attention. They 
vary in size from those of very small dimension to tumors 
weighing many pounds. As they grow, their walls some- 
times become very thick and firm, and often of great tough- 
ness. The contents may be thin and slightly colored, or 
thick and of a dark color; sometimes of a yellowish hue. The 
quantity of these contents will vary from pints to gallons. 
Encysted tumors, containing hair and fatty matter, will be 
met occasionally. The fatty matter may be in a somewhat 
fluid condition. 

Treatment. — To treat an ovarian or any other tumor 
whose contents are liquid, the hollow=needle should be intro- 
duced into the growth and the liquid matter withdrawn. In 
a single=cyst ovarian tumor, the water can be withdrawn as 
easily as from the serous sacs when effusions are present; 
but, if it be composed of many cysts, the cyst=walls will have 
to be mutilated thoroughly before the contents can be with- 
drawn. If the matter within the tumor is semisolid, fluid 
should be injected for the purpose of diluting the material, 
which then should be withdrawn and fresh fluid injected. 



CANCEROUS AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 439 

In ovarian tumors, after the water is withdrawn, fluid should 
be injected in sufficient quantity to disinfect the growth. 
If the tumor does not contain liquid or semisolid matter, 
fluid should be injected in the mass at a number of different 
points. Circulation in these tumors is abnormal, which 
will prevent the fluid from entering in sufficient quantity by 
arterial injection. As a rule, there is no necessity for re- 
moving tumors from the cavity of the abdomen, or, in fact, 
from any other part of the body, if treated as directed above, 
the general treatment of the body should be the same as in 
an ordinary case. 

DROPSY. 

Dropsy is not a disease per se, but only a symptom of a 
disease. It often occurs as a result of disease of the heart, 
liver, or kidneys. 

A dropsy receives its name from its location. If it is seated 
in the serous cavities, it is designated by the prefix "hydro" 
to the name of the serous membrane; as in dropsy of the 
peritoneum, it is called hydroperitoneum, or in dropsy of the 
pericardium or pleural sacs, it is called hydrothorax, etc. 
Dropsy of the cellular tissue at any point is called edema,' as 
edema of the glottis, edema of the legs, arms, face, etc. Ef- 
fusion in the air=cells is called edema of the lungs. If dropsy 
is confined to the abdomen, it is called ascites, or abdominal 
dropsy. When edema exists all over the surface of the body, 
as when the cellular tissue in all parts underneath the skin 
is filled, it is called anasarca, or general dropsy. When there 
is edema of the glottis, edema of the lungs, or hydrothorax, 
death is caused frequently by asphyxia. 

When death is caused by asphyxia, the peripheral or super- 
ficial veins and capillaries will be congested, and extensive 
discoloration of the face and neck will result. This should 
be removed by tapping the heart direct or raising one of the 
veins. In general dropsy, the cavities and subcutaneous tis- 
sues in every part of the body are filled more or less with the 



440 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

dropsical fluid. The cavities of (lie body, especially of the 
thorax and abdomen, will be tilled some times to great dis- 
tention. As much as fifty pints have been taken from the 
abdominal cavity after death. The lungs mar be collapsed, 
and the heart pushed out of position, by effused dropsical 
fluid in the pleural sacs. The upper and lower extremities 
— especially the hands, forearms, feet, ami legs — and other 
parts of the body, may be distended to an enormous size. 

In many cases, on account of the presence of water so near 
the surface, the cuticle will have a tendency to slip, resulting 
in "skin-slip." 

Treatment. — Dropsical cases are not hard to preserve, if 
treated properly ; to handle such a case, however, requires a 
good deal of time and work. First, cover the embalming 
board with a rubber sheet, with the sides rolled up to pre- 
vent the water from escaping to the floor, and soiling the 
carpet, etc. The lower corners should be brought together 
so as to form a spout, under which a vessel may be placed to 
receive the dropsical fluid. One of the rubber sheets espe- 
cially manufactured for the purpose may be used, if desired, 
but a plain rubber sheet will answer all requirements. Next, 
place the body upon the embalming board thus .prepared, 
and elevate the head and shoulders. 

The cavities should then be relieved of water by the inser- 
tion of the trocar or hollow=needle into the serous sacs that 
are involved. They usually can be reached from the point 
over the stomach in the hypogastric region, where the needle 
is inserted, ordinarily, for cavity injection. When so intro- 
duced, the water in the abdominal cavity will have to be 
pumped out. If there is great distension of the abdominal 
cavity, the trocar may be inserted immediately above the 
pelvic bone, on the median line, and manipulated in such 
a manner that the water will gravitate out through the in- 
strument; or, if necessary, the pump may be attached and 
the contents aspirated. If the thoracic cavity is filled, the 
needle should be introduced through the diaphragm (as di- 



CANCEROUS AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 441 

rected in the chapter on "Cavity Embalming"), the pump at- 
tached, and the water pumped out; or the needle can be in- 
serted between the ribs, and the contents aspirated. 

After the water has been removed from the cavities, pro- 
ceed to remove it from the extremities. This can be done best 
by the use of a rubber bandage. A bandage three inches in 
width by twelve feet in length, is sufficient for the purpose. 
The skin should be punctured, or an incision made through 
the skin on the under surface of the arm, from the elbow to 
the shoulder; then from the elbow to the wrist=joint. Many 
punctures should be made to give exit to the water. Begin 
the application of the bandage at the shoulder, wrapping it 
tightly and regularly downward without reversing until the 
elbow=joint is reached ; then carry it from that point straight 
down to the tips of the fingers and apply the bandage in the 
same manner upward toward the elbow, until that joint is 
reached. If the bandage is applied tightly and slowly, the 
water will be forced out of the punctures or incision ahead 
of each turn of the bandage. If enough punctures have not 
been made, more should be made while the bandage is being- 
applied. These punctures will not show after the water is 
removed and the extremities are placed in position. 

To remove water from the lower extremities, the bandage 
should be applied, beginning at the hip=joint. It should be 
wrapped slowly and tightly to the ankle, then carried to the 
toes and the application should proceed toward the ankle in 
the same manner. Prior to the application of the bandage, 
the skin should be punctured at many places, or a single in- 
cision should be made through the skin on the under surface 
from the hip to the ankle. 

After the dropsical fluid has been removed in the manner 
above described, a common roller=bandage should be applied 
to lie' extremities. Then the heart should be tapped and the 
blood withdrawn while fluid is being injected into the arter- 
ies. Enough fluid should be injected to till the capillaries in 



441' CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

all parts of the body. The addition of a little formalin, say 
from one to two ounces in each quart of any of the ordinary 
fluids, will harden the tissues admirably in a ease of this 
kind. The cavities should be filled in the usual manner. 

If death has been caused by asphyxia, the congestion of the 
surface of the neck and face can be removed, usually, without 
trouble, by the withdrawal of blood, as it is thin and does not 
coagulate readily in these cases. Usually the watery portion 
of the blood is increased greatly, which retards coagulation 
very materially. 

If cases are treated in this manner, the result will be very 
sat isfactory. 

RHEUMATISM. 

The great majority of cases of acute rheumatism ultimately 
end in recovery; the proportion of deaths, as the immediate 
result of an attack, being only a small per cent. On the other 
hand, a large number of persons suffer from remote effects of 
the disease, many of which are not only distressing, but likely 
to lead to death. Of the immediately fatal cases, the large 
proportion are associated with, if not actually due to, acute 
diseases of the respiratory organs. The fatal cases which pre- 
sent cardiac diseases, especially acute pericarditis, are 
scarcely less numerous. Altogether, it may be said that from 
one=half to three=fourths of all cases of death during acute 
rheumatism are referable to acute cardiac and pulmonary 
diseases, either separately or combined. 

It is doubtful whether acute rheumatism ever proves fatal 
— that is, whether any patient dies from the excessive pain, 
sweating, and consequent exhaustion caused by rheumatism. 
Eyperpyrexia, next to pulmonary and cardiac complications, 
is the most common cause of death. In a small number of 
cases, acute alcoholism and other complications, mentioned 
elsewhere, lead to fatal termination. A most common effect 
is valvular disease of the heart, which, in a majority of cases, 
is referable to acute endocarditis, occurring as a complication 
of rheumatism. 



CANCEROUS AND CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 443 

It is impossible to estimate the number of diseases of the 
lungs, vessels, brain, kidneys, and other organs, which, in 
their turn, are caused by such heart diseases. The vessels 
suffer directly from the effects of rheumatism, and when, in 
addition, the remote effects of pneumonia and pleurisy, and 
the other less=common complications of rheumatism, are 
considered, the ultimate changes are very extensive. 

Some of the complications in rheumatism are inflammation 
of the heart and pericardium, hyperemia, and inflammation 
of the lungs, trachea, and larynx, inflammation of the various 
serous membranes, various nervous affections, such as men- 
ingitis and mental derangement, erythema nodosum, and 
scarlatina, albuminuria, hyperpyrexia, hemorrhage, and 
lastly venous or intercurrent conditions. Cardiac complica- 
tions are by far the most frequent, being present in no fewer 
than fifty per cent, of all cases. Inflammation of the heart 
and pericardium are fully described under their appropriate 
headings. 

Treatment. — The treatment of these cases is indicated by 
the complicating disease from which the patient dies. It is 
necessary to know the disease to understand the complica- 
tions. If the case is one of cardiac disease, or disease of the 
respiratory organs, the treatment should be the same as that 
given under the proper heads. 



CHAPTER XXXV 



DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CAUSES. 



POST-MORTEM CASES. 

Post=niortem (after death) examinations are held usually 
by physicians or experts, with a view to examining the vis- 
cera of the large cavities of tin 1 body. The different viscera 
have to he removed and the parts subjected to examination. 
To accomplish this, the different cavities must necessarily be 
opened. To open the thoracic and abdominal cavities, an 
incision is made usually from the top of the breastbone, ex- 
tending to the center of the pubic arch. The tissues are dis- 
sected from the breast=bone and the cartilages of the ribs; 
then an incision is made through the outer ends of the car- 
tilages, near their junction with the ribs; the breast=bone is 
turned up over the face and held in that position, while the 
contents of the thoracic and abdominal cavities are removed. 

In the removal of the viscera, the large vessels within these 
cavities are severed, entirely destroying the circulation. Not 
only are tBe large vessels severed, but also many of the 
smaller ones, which arc 1 connected with these by anastomoses, 
making the ligation of all the vessels very tedious, and, in 
some cases, impossible. If the organs of the pelvis are re- 
moved, the anastomoses of the internal iliac and pubic ar- 
teries will be destroyed, which makes it necessary to ligate 
the external iliac near Poupart's ligament, to prevent leakage 
while injecting the femoral arteries. 

Treatment. — To inject the upper extremities, head, face, 
;iiid neck, it will be necessary to ligate the innominate, left 
common carotid, and left subclavian arteries. Tin 1 tube 
should be inserted into either the innominate or left com- 

Hi 



DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CAUSES 445 

mon carotid — it matters not which — and the artery tied 
around it. If fluid is then injected, it will reach the above= 
named parts. If the fluid is injected through the innominate, 
it will pass into the right subclavian and ascend through the 
right common carotid and vertebral arteries to the outside 
and inside of the cranial cavity, through the circle of Willis 
at the base of the brain, then downward through the left 
internal carotid and left vertebral artery to the subclavian 
artery, thence to the left extremity. If the left 'common ca- 
rotid is used, the fluid will take the'opposite direction, reach- 
ing all the parts in a similar manner. 

If the cranial cavity has been opened, by removing the 
skull-cap, and the brain and the meninges removed, injection 
through the carotids will amount to nothing ; only the upper 
extremities can be reached, after tying the subclavian on 
either side and closing the foramen magnum to prevent the 
escape of fluid from the vertebral arteries. To reach the 
lower extremities, ligate the largest of the anastomotic ar- 
teries and the external iliacs (near Poupart's ligament), 
which supply these parts. The operation of ligating the 
arteries above mentioned will take not only a considerable 
length of time, but also will require an anatomical knowledge 
of the parts, at least sufficient to locate the arteries which 
are to be ligated. 

If the tube is not tied in one of the several ends of the ar- 
teries, the arteries in the different extremities should then be 
raised at the points where the operator is directed to raise 
them in an ordinary case. The point of the nozzle can be 
turned toward the distal end of the extremity, or towards the 
heart, just as the operator chooses. As the anastomoses are 
not destroyed in the extremities, the fluid will reach all parts 
of them, just as in cases where the whole circulation is intact. 

The walls of the cavities should be cleansed with a cloth or 
sponge and hot water, removing as much moisture as is pos- 
sible; sprinkle the walls thoroughly with a dessicating or 
hardening compound; then cleanse and wipe dry each of the 



44G CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

visceral organs, dusting hardening compound over them, and 
replace them in the cavities to which they belong. After the 
viscera have been replaced, the hardening compound should 
be dusted freely over them. A layer of cotton batting or 
absorbent cotton may be introduced over the viscera and the 
edges of the incision drawn together and stitched in the 
ordinary manner. 

If the contents of the cranial cavity have been removed, 
and the trunk has not been opened, the common carotids 
should be tied, and a plug may be placed in the foramen 
magnum to prevent leakage through the vertebral arteries. 
Fluid can then be injected as in an ordinary case. 

If, at the same time, the thoracic cavity has been opened, 
a ligature may be drawn tightly around the neck, just above 
the breast=bom, which will strangulate the vessels that have 
been opened within the thorax; then place the body well on 
the incline and fill the remainder of the cranial cavity full of 
fluid, allowing it to gravitate into the tissues of the neck and 
face. This will follow rapidly. If the brain is to be re- 
turned to the cavity, it should be covered with hardening 
compound or some dessicating powder; then the inside of 
the skull-cap and the raw surfaces of the scalp that have 
been removed should be dusted liberally with the drying- 
powder, the skull=cap returned to its place, and the edges of 
the scalp stitched together, and fluid injected into the cellu- 
lar tissues beneath the skin in quantities sufficient to fill all 
the tissues. 

Another method, the result of which will be equally satis- 
factory, is to inject fluid through the cellular tissue over the 
surface of the extremities, at every point, instead of ligating 
and injecting the arteries. If enough fluid is injected through 
(lie cellular tissue over the upper surface, it will settle down- 
ward and thoroughly sterilize and preserve all of the tissues. 

Whether the arteries are ligated in all cases or not, the in- 
jection through the cellular tissue underneath the skin over 
the trunk is necessary, as the arteries carrying blood to the 



DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CAUSES 447 

soft tissues on the outside of the skeleton in the trunk cannot 
be reached by the arterial injection. The hardening com- 
pound, which is used within the thoracic and abdominal cav- 
ities around and over the visceral contents, will only dry and 
preserve the viscera, and will not penetrate or dessicate all of 
the soft tissues forming the walls of the cavities. 

Frequently, where the circulation through the neck and 
cranial cavity is intact, if a cord is tied tightly around the 
neck, to close the arterial and venous channels in that part, 
one of the needle processes can be used and fluid injected into 
every part of the face, head, and neck, as well as into the vis- 
cera of the cranial cavity, preserving the features in a per- 
fectly natural condition. We have accomplished this success- 
fully in a number of cases. 

The operator will be obliged to depend largely upon his 
own judgment in the treatment of these cases, as what will 
apply to one will not always apply to another. 

DROWNED CASES. 

When a, body has met death in any manner, and is placed 
in the water after life is extinct, its preservation will scarcely 
be affected in the least. Even after remaining in the water 
for many hours, there is no water found in the lungs, or in 
any other part of the body, except that which it normally 
contains. 

Bui when a body is drowned, the conditions are different. 
Death is caused by asphyxia. At the last effort at respiration, 
water instead of air is taken into the lungs. Respiration is 
largely involuntary — that is, respiration is carried on by 
muscles not under the control of the will to a very great ex- 
tent. Therefore, the drowning man holds his breath as long 
as possible, but finally the involuntary muscles compel the 
effort to breathe, when water is taken into the lungs. 

Treatment. — Water taken into the lungs and stomach 
hastens putrefaction in these organs, and, unless fluid is in- 
jected directly into tho lnngs through the respiratory tract, 



448 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

a bloody purging will follow, usually, within a few hours. 
Alter drowning, the body sinks, and, ordinarily, remains at 
the bottom of the water for some time, or until gases begin 
to generate in the cavities and tissues, which raise it to the 
surface. If it is taken from the water, immediately after 
coming to the surface, it should be covered at once, so as en- 
tirely to exclude the light and air, as they will form a kind 
>f corroding of the skin, which cannot be removed. If the 
body is embalmed at once, the natural features and color may 
be retained. 

A "FLOATER." 

If the body is what is termed a "floater" (one that has been 
floating on the surface of the water), there will be a very dis- 
agreeable odor, and the tissues and cavities will be filled with 
gases. If it lias been exposed for some time, the subcutaneous 
cellular tissue and the cavities will be tilled with the gases, so 
that the skin will be distended to its greatest extent. It will 
be of a, darkish=grcen color. The middle layer will be soft- 
ened, and the cuticle will be found loose and shredded. The 
eyes will be bulging out of their sockets, the lips puffed, etc. 

Treatment. — Cases of this kind are hard and unpleasant 
to handle, and it cannot be expected to make them fully pre- 
sentable. Indeed, some say that nothing can be done with 
them, and that they should be buried at once. If these cases 
were always found near their homes, such treatment might be 
all that is necessary. But, unfortunately, the human family 
is migratory, and accidents and suicides occur away from 
home, making it necessary to ship such bodies. Even if near 
their homes, their families often insist upon giving them 
Christian burial, according to the rites of the church. 

If purging is going on when the body is received, turn it 
upon the side, and make pressure upon the ribs with the 
hands, and at the same time press the diaphragm upward 
with the knee, to relieve the lutes and stomach of their con- 
tents. After removing all matter and water from the lungs 



DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CAUSES 449 

and stomach, these organs should be filled with fluid through 
the trachea, 

A case of this kind should be treated as follows : Place the 
body upon the board; if the cuticle is loose and stredded, 
wash dt off entirely ; cleanse the body of other matter ; then 
raise an artery at some point and inject all the fluid the ar- 
teries will receive: next fill the cavities; then remove the 
gases from the cellular tissue and fill with fluid. This can 
be done by introducing the trocar or hollow=needle under- 
neath the skin along the center of the body, over the breast^ 
bone, the linea alba (white line of the abdomen), the upper 
surface of the upper and lower extremities, and under the 
lips, eyelids, and the wings of the nose. The gases should be 
allowed to escape, and fluid should be injected in large quan- 
tities. The amount of fluid necessary to use in adult cases 
will range from three to five gallons. 

If the tissues and cavities are filled in the above manner, 
the putrefactive bacteria will be destroyed, and the body will 
harden and can be shipped to any point without giving the 
least trouble. 

LIGHTNING AND ELECTRICITY. 

Death resulting from these causes may show, in a post= 
mortem examination, an entirely different condition in dif- 
ferent bodies. Some may exhibit no lesion whatever, the 
manner of death in these instances being shock to the brain 
and general nervous system. On the other hand, the elec- 
tricity, in its passage through the body, may produce a num- 
ber of mechanical effects. Wounds, like those inflicted by 
a blunt stabbing=instrument, may mark the point of entry 
and departure; bones may be broken, the internal viscera 
torn, and arteries and veins ruptured. Rigor mortis is not 
apparent as a rule, and the blood remains in a fluid con- 
dition. 

Treatment. — - Usually, decomposition commences very 
soon after death, so the blood should be removed at once. The 
femoral vein should be raised, as more blood can be with- 



450 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

drawn from that point than from any other. After raising 
the femora] artery and vein, a drainage=tube should be in- 
serted into the vein to a point above Poupart's ligament, and 
tied. The artery should then be opeined and the arterial- 
tube inserted. The aspirator should be attached to the ar- 
terial=tube and fluid injected. However, before the injec- 
tion begins, the body should be elevated, and the blood be al- 
lowed to drain out by gravitation, while fluid is being in- 
jected into the artery. After a large amount of fluid has 
been injected, the cavities should be tilled in the usual man- 
ner. 

If the case is one in which the vascular system has been de- 
stroyed, treat the cavities as usual, and fill the soft tissues 
on the outside of the skeleton by the injection of fluid through 
the cellular tissue. If the circulation is not destroyed in the 
head and neck, a cord should be tied tightly around the neck, 
and fluid injected by one of the needle processes. This will 
fill the capillaries and tissues of the head, face, and neck; 
whereas, fluid injected underneath the skin, over the parts 
that are exposed, will destroy the features, causing mottling 
or spots. 

CASES OF MUTILATION. 
As in Railroad and Other Accidents. 

In death from railroad and other similar accidents great 
mutilation of the body ofteu results. The extremities may 
be torn from the body; the trunk itself served in twain; the 
head be mashed, and the brains ooze from the wounds; ves- 
sels may be trrn, rendering the circulation of fluid through 
the arteries impossible. 

Treatment. — The operator should use his judgment in the 
treatment of these cases, as they differ very much from the or- 
dinary. If possible, the vessels should be tied and injected, 
but, where the mutilation is extensive and it is not possible 
to tie the. arteries, fluid should be injected in large quantities 
into the subcutaneous, cellular tissue. 



DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CAUSES 451 

If an extremity be severed, a cord tied tightly around the 
stump will be sufficient to strangulate the vessels, so that 
there will be no leakage when the arteries are filled. The 
distal end can be injected through the subcutaneous, cellular 
tissue, and the surfaces be covered with hardening compound 
and seAved to the proximal end, or stump, covering the seam 
also with hardening compound. 

If several of the extremities are severed, they can be treated 
in the same manner. When the walls of the cavities are in- 
tact, fluid can be injected freely into them and into their 
visceral contents. 

If the trunk is severed in twain, the liquid contents should 
be removed as far as possible, and hardening compound used 
freely over the organs; then the body should be sewed to- 
gether and hardening compound placed over the wound on 
the outside, using absorbent cotton when necessary. In 
mutilation which severs the trunk, the circulation will be 
destroyed. Before sewing the parts together, the arteries 
should be tied and injected; also fluid should be injected in- 
to the subcutaneous, cellular tissue, especially over the trunk 
and near the mutilation. All gashes and cuts should be 
sewed neatly and covered with hardening compound. Bruises 
and discolorations can be covered with pigment. 

If the nose, lips, and other parts of the face that are ex- 
posed should be torn away, the raw surfaces should be 
sprinkled with hardening compound and covered with some 
white fabric. The features may be built out with plaster of 
Paris by an artist, and tinted, as recommended by some, but 
the ordinary operator will not, as a rule, find this method 
satisfactory. 

If a body is cut to pieces in such a manner that coaptation 
of the parts is impossible, the following treatment may be 
used : Take fifteen pounds of hardening compound and 
1wei)ty=five pounds of sawdust; mix thoroughly; cover the 
bottom of an ordinary rough box to a depth of about two 
inches with the mixture; place the parts therein and cover 



452 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

with the remainder, allowing them to remain for twenty=four 
to forty<=eight hours, after which time they will be dessieated 
thoroughly, and can be handled without the presence of odor 
or moisture. 

GUNSHOT WOUNDS. 

In cases of death resulting from gunshot wounds, the cir- 
culation frequently is destroyed in the parts, the immediate 
cause of death being hemorrhage. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of these cases, it will be 
necessary to cut down to and tie the artery, if it is wounded 
or severed. Death may result from hemorrhage, caused by 
the wounding of a large vein within the trunk, or within one 
of the cavities. If a vein only is wounded, the vessel will not 
have to be tied. 

If the wound be through the aorta, or one or more of its 
large branches, the injection of fluid through the arterial sys- 
tem would not be successful in filling the capillaries of the 
soft tissues on the outside of the body. The fluid would pass 
through to the wound and there escape into the cavities of 
the trunk, resulting in cavity injection alone; hence, the 
necessity for tying the artery on both sides of the wound. 
If the artery or arteries cannot be tied, fluid should be in- 
jected into the subcutaneous, cellular tissue over the upper 
surfaces of the body, and the cavities should be filled in the 
usual manner. 

If the wound is through the skull, the ball having made 
the hole of entrance and exit through the skull=bones, the 
holes can be closed with putty, plaster of Paris, or pledgets 
of absorbent cotton, and the injection can proceed as if the 
circulation were not destroyed within the cavity. 

If the skullcap has been torn away, the body should be 
placed very high on the incline, an artery raised, and fluid 
injected very slowly until fluid appears in the wound, when 
it should be allowed to gravitate and settle into the tissues. 
After a time, the injection can be repeated, and, in this way, 
a sufficient amount of fluid be injected to fill the capillaries 



DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CAUSES 453 

in the parts below the skull. After the injection through 
the arteries, fluid should be introduced directly into the re- 
maining brain substance, and the whole covered with harden- 
ing compound. The inside of the skullcap should be dusted 
with powder and the parts that remain should be placed in 
position. Fluid should then be injected into the subcutane- 
ous, cellular tissue in all parts of the scalp that are not filled 
with fluid by the injection of the arteries. The wound should 
then be covered with absorbent cotton, and held in position 
with a roller bandage. 

Again, the arteries may be strangulated in the neck by the 
application of a fine cord, which should be drawn tightly to 
prevent leakage through the skull, while the extremities and 
the trunk are being injected with fluid. The face and upper 
portions should be treated by the subcutaneous injection of 
fluid, and the brain or remaining contents of the skull should 
receive special treatment, as directed above. After a time 
the cord around the neck can be removed. The judgment of 
the operator should govern in the treatment of each case. 

ASPHYXIA. 

Asphyxia is understood to mean the condition that results 
from the interruption or cessation of the function of respira- 
tion. The causes of asphyxia are: disease of, or injury to, 
the niedula oblongata, producing paralysis of the respiratory 
nerve-centers; paralysis of the nerves or muscles of respira- 
tion; collapse or disease of the lungs; closing of the air- 
passages by tumors or spasms of the glottis ; by foreign bod- 
ies ; suffocation ; strangulation ; hanging ; drowning ; etc. 

The blood is of a dark color, owing to complete reduction 
of the hemoglobin and the proportion of the carbonic acid 
gas being greatly increased. The blood coagulates slowly or 
imperfectly, remaining fluid for a long time, or forming only 
a few soft coagula. The right side of the heart, large venous 
trunks, and the pulmonary artery, arc distended with dark 
blood. Sometimes the left side and large arteries are full, 



4.-)4 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

but more frequently they are empty, or contain only a small 
amount of dark blood. The capillaries of the face and neck 
may be more or less congested. The lungs may be full of 
blood, but more frequently are pale and anemic. Usually the 
abdominal viscera are engorged. 

Treatment. — In asphyxia, the smaller vessels and capil- 
laries of the surface are filled with blood, causing a dark= 
bluish discoloration, especially in the face and neck. To 
remove this congestion, the body should be placed high on 
the incline, and the blood withdrawn by tapping the heart 
direct or through the basilic or femoral vein. It is better 
to raise the femoral vein, as it is most dependent, and gravity 
will aid the operation. Fluid should be injected through 
the femoral artery — that is, provided the femoral vein is 
used — which will aid in forcing the blood from the vein by 
pressure upon the peripheral vessels. Fluid should be in- 
jected very slowly and carefully. If the radial or brachial 
artery is used, then the direct operation upon the heart, or 
the basilic vein=tube, will answer for the withdrawal of 
blood. This should take place alternately with the injection 
of fluid through the artery — pumping out as much blood as 
possible, then injecting a pint or two of fluid, and pumping 
alternately until the blood has been withdrawn. If the rim 
of the ear still remains dark, it should be turned upward 
and pressed upon to remove the blood in the vessels and capil- 
laries. The needle processes are not necssary, as the blood 
can be withdrawn as directed. 

DEATH BY FREEZING. 

Bodies that are frozen will be rigid, due to the freezing 
of the liquids in the tissues near the surface, very much re- 
send ding the condition known as rigor mortis. There is 
this difference, however: when the rigidity of freezing is 
broken up there will be heard a crackling sound, similar to 
that of breaking a frozen cloth, due to the fracture of the 
frozen liquids. 



DEATH FROM ACCIDENTAL CAUSES 455 

The surface may be frozen and still death may not be 
present. If there is a doubt, the body should be taken into 
a room, not too warm, and cold water first applied to the sur- 
face, making successive applications, increasing the tempera- 
ture of the water each time. Then place in blankets, rub and 
chafe the surface of the body until signs of life return ; do 
not place it too near the fire or a strong heat too soon, as 
such practice will not result satisfactorily. If death is really 
present, the blood will be found thin, after the body has been 
thawed out, as freezing does not coagulate the blood ; in fact, 
it retards coagulation. 

Treatment. — As soon as the body is thawed out, the blood 
should be withdrawn, and the body filled with fluid as in any 
other case. 



CHAPTEK XXXVI. 



DEATH FROM POISON. 



Fluid should uot be injected into a case dying from natural 
causes, if it is known that a post-mortem examination is to 
be held, or scientific investigation is to be made. If fluid is 
injected, it will change and harden the structure so that a 
microscopic examination cannot be made; nor will the tissues 
have the same appearance after the injection. Neither 
should fluid be injected into a case dying under such circum- 
stances as to permit a doubt as to whether death resulted 
from natural causes or from criminal practices. If fluid is 
injected, the real cause of death may be entirely covered, as 
when metallic or other poisons are used for the purpose of 
producing death. 

In all such cases, the coroner should be called at once, and 
the operator should be governed entirely by the official de- 
cision in the case. If the coroner permits the embalming of 
the body, the responsibility rests on him alone; but, if em- 
balming should be practiced without his permission, the mis- 
take will rest with the operator. 

When murder is committed, everything should be done to 
aid the law to place the crime where it belongs. The sources 
of evidence, in cases of suspected poisoning, are the symtoms, 
the post=mortem appearances, and chemical analysis of arti- 
cles of food and drink, and of the body and excretions. The 
poisons most commonly administered are opium, prnssic acid, 
arsenic in various forms, phosphorus, oil of vitrol, the mer- 
curial salts, and oxalic acid. Sometimes persons are found 
dead, as the result of poison, concerning the manner of whose 
death nothing whatever can be learned ; a suspicion of poison- 
ing arises from the circumstances under which the corpse is 



DEATH FROM POISON 457 

found. In such a case, chemical analysis ought invariably 
to be invoked. 

The effects, in the case of many poisons, may be manifested 
either suddenly or slowly; hence, we have acute and chronic 
poisons. Cases of chronic poisoning are usually the result of 
the repeated administration of small doses of lead, copper, 
mercury, phosphorus, or arsenic. The general conditions 
which excite a suspicion of poisoning are the sudden onset of 
serious and increasingly alarming symptoms in a person pre- 
viously in good health, especially if a prominent symptom be 
pain in the epigastric region ; or where there is complete pros- 
tration of the vital powers, a cadaverous expression of the 
countenance, an abundant perspiration, and speech- death. 
In all such cases the aid of a chemist is required, either to 
confirm well=founded, or to rebut ill=founded, suspicions. 

Poisons may be divided into three classes : first, corrosives ; 
second, irritants ; third, neurotics. 

Corrosive Poisons. — The most commonly administered 
corrosives are the mineral acids — sulphuric, nitric, hydro- 
chloric, and oxalic; the alkalis — potash, soda, and ammonia; 
bisulphate and carbonate of potash ; and zinc, tin, antimony 
chlorides, and silver nitrate. 

The mineral acids and the alkalis have scarcely any remote 
effects upon the system, their action being almost purely lo- 
cal. The symptoms of corrosive poisoning are marked and 
unmistakable, except when the patient is an infant. Imme- 
diately after swallowing the corrosive substance, there is an 
acid, caustic, or metallic, burning sensation felt in the mouth, 
fauces, gullet, and stomach, which speedily extends over the 
whole abdominal region. Vomiting usually follows; the con- 
tents of the stomach at first are altered, more or less, by the 
action of the poison; no relief is afforded by the evacuation 
of the stomach ; and, later, the vomits may be mingled, more 
or less, with altered blood, which may be dark or even black; 



458 CHAMPIOX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

shreddy mucus, casts of the gullet or stomach, formed by the 
shedding of the mucous membrane, and sometimes even the 
muscular wall of the esophagus, are ejected. The abdominal 
pain is aggravated greatly by pressure. The whole abdomen 
is distended by the gases evolved, owing to the action of the 
poison. The diaphragm is pressed upon, and extreme diffi- 
culty of breathing results, owing to pressure upon the lungs. 
In some cases the secretions are suppressed, while in others 
they are increased. The mouth, tongue, and fauces exhibit 
the local effects of the corrosive that has been taken ; a yellow 
coating may be observed in the case of nitric acid; white, at 
first, and as if covered with paint, from sulphuric acid; and 
whitish or brown and less thickly coated, from hydrochloric- 
acid. Yellow or brown stains may be observed on the skin, 
exiending downward from the angles of the mouth, caused 
by trickling of the acid or other corrosive fluids from the 
month. The surface of the body may become of a purplish 
hue, due to the difficult respiration. Death usually occurs 
within a period of twelve to twenty-four hours. 

When nitric acid or ammonia is taken, death may be caused 
by the vapors gaining access to the air=passages and lungs. 

Oxalic acid in concentrated solution is undoubtedly a cor- 
rosive and irritant poison, but it usually produces death by 
its depressive action upon the heart, before corrosion of the 
mucous membrane of the alimentary canal takes place. 

IRRITANT Poisons are of two classes, usually, metallic 
irritants, and vegetable and animal irritants, the latter two 
being grouped together. 

An irritant is a poison which causes inflammation of the 
parts to which it is applied, usually the alimentary canal. 
The most important of the metallic irritant poisons is ar- 
senic: others are the salts of antimony, zinc, and other metals. 
Elaterium, essential oils, and gamboge may be cited as ex- 
amples of vegetable irritants; and cantharides, of animal 
irritants. 



DEATH FROM POISON 459 

The symptoms differ from those of corrosive poisons by 
being much slower in development and effects upon the sys- 
tem. The post-mortem appearances, in cases of irritant 
and corrosive poisons, are corrosions in the mouth, fauces, 
gullet, and stomach, the mucous membrane being shriveled, . 
altered in consistence and color, and more or less detached ; 
irritation and inflammation of the stomach and upper por- 
tions of the small intestine ; ulceration ; and erosion. In cor- 
rosive poisoning the stomach may be perforated, the edges of 
the aperture may be shreddel, and, in the case of sulphuric 
acid, the viscera may be blackened from the action of the acid 
upon the blood=pigment. The small intestine is implicated to 
a varying extent, or may altogether escape. The large intes- 
tine may be attacked, but this is more especially the case in 
poisoning by mercury. Arsenic experts a specific effect upon 
the mucous membrane of the stoma.ch. 

Neurotic Poisons are those which produce death through 
the nervous system. This class embraces pure narcotics, such 
as morphia, chloral hydrate, prussic acid, aconite, belladon- 
na, carbolic acid, stychnia, hyoscyamus, etc. The symptoms 
are necessarily of the most varied character. 

Chloral hydrate causes death after a stage of unconscious- 
ness ; the nature of the poisoning is determined usually by the 
surroundings, there being a bottle or some other retainer 
which will show evidence of the presence of chloral. 

Prussic acid produces its effect in the course of a few 
minutes, or it may be seconds only. Usually the pupils will 
be dilated and the surface of the body cyanosed (purplish 
in color). 

Aconite produces death quickly without any apparent 
anatomical changes. 

In cases of belladonna, the pupils will be widely dilated. 

Carbolic acid, or phenol, whitens and shrivels the mem- 
branes with which it comes in contact, and not only acts as 
a corrosive, but produces speedy narcosis. The peculiar 
odor of phenol is always perceptible, though not infrequently 
overlooked. 



460 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

In strychnia, the anatomical appearances are very 111= 
marked, and, at most, consist of some congestion of the 
spinal cord, and even this may be wanting. 

Hyoscyamus, and others above mentioned, have no ana- 
tomical lesions that are noticeable. 

Treatment. — The treatment in the above cases should be 
the same as in ordinary cases. 

OPIUM OR MORPHIN POISONING. 

In consequence of the extent to which opium and its prep- 
arations, including morphin, are used for the relief of pain, 
and the readiness with which the drug is procurable, poison- 
ing by opium is very common, and there is no doubt that a 
great number of persons perish every year in this country 
through its improper use, as we have many preparations 
known as "quack remedies" that contain a large amount of 
opium. So far as toxicology is concerned, the effects of 
opium are due to the morphin it contains, since the effects of 
other active constituents of the drug are overshadowed by 
those of this, its chief alkaloid. 

The post-mortem appearances after opium poisoning are 
not prominent, or may be said to be almost nil. As a rule the 
brain is congested, and the lungs and right side of the heart 
are more or less engorged, as if death were the result of as- 
phyxia ; but this is not so in all cases. 

Treatment. — The greatest trouble that the embalmer ex- 
periences, is in the diseolorations that follow after twenty= 
four to forty=eiglit hours. The preservation of these cases is 
as easy as those dying from any ordinary disease. In con- 
sultation with undertakers throughout this country, we find 
that their experience lias been, almost universally, that thor- 
ough injection of the arterial system, and the introduction of 
fluid throughout the cavities, will preserve these bodies; lint, 
after twenty=four to forty=eight hours, a discoloration of the 
surface, either wholly or at certain points, especially over the 
head, neck, and face, of a chocolate or brownish=yellow color, 



DEATH FROM POISON 461 

will follow. The question has been asked many times, "What 
is the cause of this? Is it due to the introduction of certain 
chemicals, or is it due to the putrefaction of certain parts of 
the skin or other tissues of the body?" In fact, it has been 
a matter that has not been understood heretofore, either by 
the teachers of embalming, or by those who have had occasion 
to embalm bodies dying from the effects of opium. 

After a thorough examination of such cases and numerous 
experiments, we have come to the conclusion that this discol- 
oration is due to the pathological changes of certain constitu- 
ents of the blood. It seems that the corpuscles are disinte- 
grated more or less after the full effects of the opium are 
present. By placing a portion of the blood under the micro- 
scope, we have been able to find an abundance of hematoidin, 
due to the disintegration of the red corpuscles, the coloring 
matter of which is dissolved more or less in the liquid portion 
of the blood. This pigment exudes into all the tissues of the 
body, including the middle layer of the skin, producing a 
chocolate color or brownish=yellow tinge. 

As will be seen, this tinge is from the imbibition of the 
aforesaid blood=pigment, that has reached the middle layer 
in a state of solution. This may occur over the surface of the 
body aud the face at different points. Many cases present 
general discoloration, while others may be discolored only in 
certain parts, as a portion of the face on either side, or as 
spots upon the forehead, etc. 

This discoloration is permanent; no bleacher that may be 
applied externally or internally can possibly remove it. 
Therefore, to preserve such a case thoroughly is all that can 
be expected. However, if the embalmer is an artist as well, 
he may tint the face with pigment to make it appear more 
natural. The body should be placed on an incline, the blood 
withdrawn, and the arteries filled with fluid ; the gases should 
be removed and fluid injected into the cavities in the usual 
manner. 



402 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

POISONING BY ARSENIC. 

Arsenic is classed as a metallic irritant poison, though its 
action is not limited, by any means, to that of «m irritant. It 
acts specifically on the mucous membrane of the stomach and 
intestines, whatever be the channel by which the poison gains 
access to the stomach. The most usual source of acute arsen- 
ical poisoning is the administration of white arsenic (arsen- 
ious acid), but sometimes the sulphides, various aj-seuides, 
ami poisonous commercial articles, such as dyes, wall paper, 
and pigments, may be taken int*> the system by inhalation 
or absorption. 

Poisoning by arsenic may be either acute or chronic. By 
acute, we mean that which follows the taking of large doses, 
especially that of the white arsenic or arsenious acid, which 
produces death quickly; while by chronic, we mean that form 
of death which follows the gradual administration of arsenic, 
or by the inhalation of its fumes in the manufacture of wall= 
paper, pigments, etc. 

The effects of aresnic upon the system are similar, whether 
large or small doses have been taken, or by whatever channel 
the poison has gained access to the stomach. As a rule, there 
is marked inflammation of the stomach and duodenum, and 
usually of the small and large intestines, also; but not un- 
commonly the inflammation is limited to the stomach, duo- 
denum, and rectum, the intervening alimentary tract having 
escaped. If the poison has been administered in a solid form, 
white patches of the arsenical compound may be found im- 
bedded in thick, bloody mucous ami inflammatory exudations. 
Portions of the white arsenic, also, are converted sometimes, 
by the sulphureted hydrogen evolved during decomposition, 
into yellow sulphids. Ulceration of the stomach is rare, and 
perforation almost unknown. It is true, the above condition 
in part — that is inflammation of the stomach, duodenum, and 
small intestine — is present, to a greater or less extent, in poi- 
soning, by all of the irritant poisons, such as corrosive sub- 
limate, hydrochloric and oxalic acids, potash, soda*, ammonia, 

etc. 



DEATH FROM POISON 463 

Arsenic exerts a specific effect upon the mucous membrane 
of the stomach. On account of the great penetrating char- 
acter of arsenic, if it is taken in large doses, it will penetrate 
the tissues and reach almost every part of the body, thereby 
having a tendency to preserve the tissues, it being antiseptic 
in its action, and having the power of retarding the growth 
of the bacteria of putrefaction. 

Treatment. — Cases of this kind should not be hard to pre- 
serve. As stated above, preservation will follow its presence. 
The effect upon the circulation and upon the capillaries pro- 
duced by the straining, caused by retching and vomiting, and 
the direct effect of the arsenic upon the blood=pigments, may 
produce peculiar discolorations, which may be hard to re- 
move, although, if the usual means of removing discolora- 
tions are applied, a natural appearance may be produced. 

The body should be placed high upon the incline, and the 
blood withdrawn by the direct operation upon the heart, or 
through one of the veins. If there still remains a dark or 
bluish discoloration, an application of ice and salt may be 
made with good effect. Then the body should be injected 
carefully, through the arterial system, filling the tissues thor- 
oughly. The cavities should be' freed from gases and filled 
with fluid in the usual manner. 

POISONING BY MERCURY. 

Mercurial poisoning may be either acute or chronic: the 
former resulting from the administration of one or several 
large doses at short intervals; the latter form arising from 
the repeated administration of small doses of the less active 
preparations of the metal. 

Acute Mercurial Poisoning. 

The effects produced by a considerable dose of one of the 
more soluble compounds of mercury, such as the bichlorid or 
the nitrate, are those of a corrosive, irritant poison. The ef- 
fects are immediate; even in the act of swallowing the patient 



4()4 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

experiences an intense burning sensation in the mouth and 
throat, which is followed by excruciating pain in the stomach 
and throughout the abdomen. The loeal effects are frequently 
seen, as the whitening- of the tongue and fauces. When a 
concentrated solution of bichlorid of mercury is applied to 
the unbroken skin, most of the effects of mercurial poisoning- 
may result. 

The anatomical changes that are induced by mercurial poi- 
soning are those of inflammation and even erosion of the mu- 
cous membrane of the stomach and extravasation of blood 
beneath this membrane. The whole intestinal tract exhibits 
signs of extensive inflammation, which is noticed especially 
in the large intestine. The mucous surface of the rectum is 
covered with shreds of bloody mucus and usually exhibits 
signs of intense inflammation. The appearance of a peculiar 
slaty color of the mucous membrane of the stomach and in- 
testines, where inflammation has not been intense, has been 
thought to be characteristic of poisoning by corrosive sub- 
limate. There is a great resemblance in the symptoms pro- 
duced by arsenic and those produced by corrosive- sublimate 
and other corrosive preparations of mercury, but the diag- 
nosis is generally not very difficult. The greater frequency of 
bloody stools and metallic taste in the mouth, following al- 
most immediately on the administration of a large dose of 
corrosive sublimate, serve to differentiate between the poi- 
sons. If doubt exists, an analysis of the secretions may be 
made. Mercury is most readily detected in the saliva, and 
arsenic in the urine. Where salivation, and the peculiar 
fetor of the breath exists, they will also be valuable aids in 
determining which of the poisons has been taken. 

Treatment. — Embalming should not follow, in cases of 
mercurial poisoning, until permitted by the coroner or some 
other agent of the law. The treatment should be varied ac- 
cording to the condition. Generally the filling of the tissues 
and cavities in the usual manner will be all that is required. 



DEATH FROM POISON 465 

Chronic Mercurial Poisoning — Mercurialism. 

The repeated ingestion of small doses of the more soluble 
and active salts of mercury, such as the bicyanid and bichlo- 
rid, sometimes gives rise to chronic symptoms, but more fre- 
quently those symptoms result when one or more doses of the 
more insoluble preparations of the metal are administered, 
such as calomel or the oxids. Chronic symptoms, which fol- 
low the administration of one dose of mercury, may not be 
altogether due to the peculiar idiosyncrasy of the patient, but 
may be attributable, to a certain degree, to the slowness with 
which the mercury is eliminated from the system. There ap- 
pears, also, to be a remarkable difference between mercuric 
and mercurous salts in respect to their toxic properties, 
which is not altogether dependent upon their differences in 
solubility. Mercuric compounds are more solvent than mer- 
curous salts. Salivation is the most common result of the 
continued administration of mercuric compounds. In these 
cases, there is a previous discharge from the salivary glands, 
swelling and tenderness of the gums, and a peculiar fetor of 
the breath. Occasionally there is gangrene of the cheeks, a 
fatal result sometimes ensuing. 

Workers in mercury, the looking-glass, barometer, and 
thermometer makers, are apt to suffer from a peculiar form 
of shaking palsy, known as the "trembles," which may result 
from the handling of the oxids of the metal, but more fre- 
quently results from the mercurial fumes. The upper extrem- 
ities are first affected, the whole muscular system following 
by degrees. The condition is intensified on attempting to 
exert the muscles, as in passing a glass of water to the lips, 
or in an attempt at locomotion; when the patient tries to 
walk, he will break into a dancing trot. In advanced cases, 
the muscles of mafiticatioo and deglutition are affected, and 
finally delirium, mania, and idiocy, may follow the continued 
inhalation of mercurial fumes, death resulting sooner or 
later in manv cases. 



466 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Treatment. — In the treatment of the cases, the ordinary 
methods will usually suffice. There is generally a metallic 
tinge in the skin, which it is impossible to remove. Powder- 
ing or artistic application of tints will, in many cases, have 
a pleasing effect. 

POISONING BY CARBONIC ACID. 

To inhale carbonic acid (carbon dioxid) will produce fatal 
results sooner or later, owing to the degree of concentration. 

It accumulates in a very concentrated degree in pits, cellars, 
mines, old wells, lime=kilns, fernienting=vats, etc. When it 
is undiluted it is very rapidly fatal, as is seen when persons 
incautiously descend into an old well, or Avhere miners 
enter an old mine, or certain parts of a mine after an explo- 
sion. Death in these cases results very quickly. 

Poisoning by carbonic acid produces the condition known 
as asphyxia. There is a general engorgement of the whole 
venous system. Tin 1 veins of the brain are especially full. 
The blood is of a dark color and very fluid. It remains fluid 
for a long time, coagulation being retarded very materially. 
The hemoglobin is reduced completely, so that it readily 
transudes into the tissues. The normal heat of the body is 
retained for a long time after death. Rigor mortis is well 
marked, coming on slowly and remaining many hours. The 
appearance of the lungs is not constant. They are not always 
congested, but are frequently pale and anemic. The posterior 
and dependent parts of the lungs are congested hypostatieally. 
The surface of the body will appear very dark, on account of 
the presence of an excess of the carbonic acid gas, due not 
only to that which is inhaled, but to a large amount being re 
tained in the system on account of insufficient aeration. 

Treatment. — The body should be placed high on the in- 
cline and blood withdrawn. If a large amount of blood is with- 
drawn, the blueness of the surface will disappear, but the red 
discoloration will remain, owing to the reduction of hemo- 
globin, and its having transuded into the tissues outside of 
the vessels, especially those near the surface. An artery 



DEATH FROM POISON 467 

should then be raised and the body filled with fluid. The cav- 
ities should be treated in the usual manner. On account of 
the hypostatic congestion of the lungs, fluid should be in- 
jected through the respiratory tract. If this is neglected, 
purging from the lungs is very liable to follow. 

POISONING BY CARBONIC OXID. 

Carbonic oxid is a far more dangerous agent than carbonic 
acid, and to it are due many of the effects sometimes ascribed 
to the latter. It is an extremely active poison. The deaths 
caused by charcoal fumes are due to the presence of carbonic 
oxid. It also exists in coal gas and constitutes its main dan- 
ger. Suicide is committed frequently by the inhalation of 
charcoal fumes but deaths usually occur by accident from 
sleeping in close rooms in which the fumes escape from the 
stove or pipe, death resulting very quickly. 

The special morbid characteristics are the bright, cherry^ 
red color of the blood and of the structures and surfaces of 
the internal organs. If the peripheral vessels are engorged, 
or the head and face congested, they will be of a very bright= 
red color. The post=mortem discoloration is of a similar red 
tint ; even where no congestion exists, in certain parts of the 
body, as of the face, a ruddy hue is attained. The red tint of 
the blood is due to the compound which carbonic oxid forms 
with hemoglobin, which is very stable and not readily broken 
up; and hence the oxygen=carrying power of the corpuscles 
is paralyzed.. The hemoglobin, in these cases, resists reduc- 
tion in the usual manner, differing, therefore, from the nor- 
mal blood=coloring matter. The heat of the body is retained 
for a long time; coagulation is retarded; rigor mortis comes 
on slowly, is well marked, and lasts for a long time. 

Treatment. — After placing the body upon the incline, the 
blood should be withdrawn, by tapping the heart direct, or 
through one of the veins. If the body remains on the incline 
until the blood settles out of the peripheral vessels, the red- 



468 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

ness of the surface will disappear, as the redness is due to the 
changed color of the blood only, and not to the reduction of 
the hemoglobin. Therefore, it does not pass out into the tis- 
sues. An artery should be raised and the capillaries filled 
very thoroughly, followed by the filling of the cavities by the 
usual operations. 

POISONING BY COAL GAS. 

Coal gas employed for illuminating and heating purposes 
contains, in addition to the olefiant gas and analogous hydro- 
carbons, on which the illuminating power is dependent., cer- 
tain other gases, called diluents, such as hydrogen, marsh gas, 
carbonic oxid, together with certain impurities, as carbonic 
acid, sulphureted hydrogen, and bisulphid of carbon. The 
characteristic odor of coal gas is mainly dependent upon these 
impurities. This odor is perceptible when mixed with atmos- 
pheric air to the extent of 1:10,000, making it a valuable 
safeguard against accidents which occur from escaping gas. 
In addition to the danger from inhalation, fatal accidents 
often result from explosions which occur if a match is lighted 
in an atmosphere containing 10 per cent, of gas. A less pro- 
portion than 10 per cent, is non-explosive, but will prove 
fatal if inhaled for a long period of time. 

Poisoning by coal gas is frequently the result of an acci- 
dent by inha.lat.ion, which may ensue among workmen from 
exposure to a sudden rush of undiluted gas, from gas meters 
ami mains, filling tin; apartments in which they are confined. 
Persons who are not in the habit of burning gas for illuminat- 
ing purposes, may leave the gas-taps open, on account of not 
knowing how to turn them off properly. Occasionally, cpaJ 
gas is used for suicidal purposes by turning it on in a close 
room. More frequently, slowly fatal eases may result from a 
gas=tap being left open through carelessness, or from the ac- 
cidental extinction of the light, or from leaking of gas pipes 
fii the house or from the main. In the latter case, the gas en- 



DEATH FROM POISON 469 

ters the room through cellars, walls, or by means of drainage 
or sewer pipes. 

On handling or opening the body, the smell of gas is often 
very marked. The blood is of a dark color and it coagu- 
lates very readily. There is a bright color of the pulmonary 
tissues, froth in the air=passages, and congestion of the 
mucous membrane, especially at the base of the tongue. 
There is also engorgement of the cerebral and spinal veins 
and rose=colored patches on the thighs. As in all cases of 
asphyxia, the surface becomes congested and of a dark=bluish 
color ; this is marked in the head, face, and neck. Frequent- 
ly, a bloody, frothy "purge escapes from the mouth and nose. 

Treatment. — The blood should be withdrawn as soon as 
possible after death, on account of its becoming coagulated 
so quickly, to relieve the congestion and to remove the dis- 
coloration, especially in the parts that are exposed to view. 
If the blood has coagulated already in the large vessels, it 
can be removed from the surface by application of the ice 
and salt mixture. If the blood is coagulated firmly in the 
small vessels and capillaries, nothing will remove the dis- 
coloration. Fluid should be injected into the lungs through 
the respiratory tract; otherwise, the treatment should be 
as in an ordinary case. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 



MSICELLANEOUS DISEASES. 



CHRONIC ALCOHOLISM. 

In giving the morbid changes that take place in the body 
from chronic alcoholism, we can do no better than quote from 
Curnow : 

"The amount of fat in the blood is increased, or it becomes 
more visible. Chronic congestion or catarrh of the stomach, 
leading to atrophy of the gland=cells, and an increase of sub= 
mucous connective tissue, is very constant, but chronic ulcer 
is not frequent. The liver is first enlarged from congestion, 
and may continue so from a subsequent infiltration with fat ; 
but more frequently it shrinks, owing to cirrhosis. Lobular 
emphysema, chronic bronchitis, and hypostatic pneumonia 
are common. The heart is flabby, dilated, and presents fatty 
infiltration or even degeneration of its muscular tissue ; but 
it may be hypertrophied, probably as a result of coexistent 
disease of the kidneys. The arteries and endocardium are 
studded with atheromatous deposits; the capillaries are con- 
gested; and the veins varicosed. The kidneys exhibit the 
fatty, or more commonly, the granular form of Bright's dis- 
ease. The muscles are pale and flabby, and even in the bones 
formation of fat takes place at the expense of the bony tex- 
ture. The nervous centers are atrophied and tough; the 
convolutions are shrunken; the nerve=cells and nerve=fibers 
are wasted; and an increased amount of serous fluid exists 
in the ventricles and subarachnoid spaces. The abnormal 
adhesion of the dura mater to the cranium, the large Pacchion- 
ian bodies, the opaque arachnoid, and the thickened pia 
mater, will testify to an exaggerated development of fibrous 
tissue. Occasionally hemorrhage into, or softening of the 
brain, consequent on the diseased states of the blood=vessels, 
is met with. The increase of connective tissue is especially 
marked in spirit drinkers, and explains the emaciated ap- 



MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 471 

pearance, prematurely aged look, sunken cheecks, and 
wrinkled countenance, which they generally present. The 
beer and wine drinkers on the contrary, are loaded with fat, 
not only in the viscera, but in the subcutaneous tissue and 
the omenta; and hence, these subjects are corpulent, with 
oily skins and prominent abdomens, even when the face and 
extremities are? wasted. Gouty deposits are also frequent." 

In these cases dropsy is usually present. Congestion of 
the pharynx, red and inflamed conjunctiva, turgid capillaries, 
and the face filled with little pimples, known as acne rosacea, 
mark the confirmed toper. 

Treatment. — The above described morbid condition will 
lead you to determine that a great change has taken place in 
the confirmed drinker, and it is no wonder that in many cases 
the small amount of fluid that is used is followed by trouble. 
It is true that alcohol is antiseptic, but the amount of alcohol 
in the system is not sufficient to prevent the growth of the 
bacteria of putrefaction. 

Owing to the destruction of the capillaries, and the inter- 
ference with the circulation in general, fluid does not pene- 
trate every part of the^body. Therefore, those parts that 
are not impregnated with fluid will constitute a soil for the 
growth of the bacteria of putrefaction. Hence, the trouble 
we have in these adcohol cases. Indeed, there are cases dy- 
ing from alchoholism, where putrefaction seems to begin im- 
mediately after death. Rigor mortis comes on and passes 
off within a few minutes. When putrefaction begins in 
such case, where rigor mortis is absent, the body must be 
filled. The fluid should be injected, not only through the 
arteries, but into the cellular tissues beneath the skin through 
tiie hollow=needle as well. Also the cavities and all the 
openings of the body should be well filled with fluid. 
ACUTE ALCOHOLISM. 

Iii cases of acute alcoholism we arc liable to have only local 
troubles, such as discolorations. A large amount of undi- 



472 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

gested food in the stomach and gases in the small and large 
intestines, and sometimes ruptured blood=vessels, and cere- 
bral hemorrhage, may be present. 

Treatment. — Special treatment will be required in each 
individual case, but there is no reason why a body dying from 
acute alcoholism cannot be kept in the hottest weather, if 
sufficient fluid is used. The arteries and capillaries of the 
circulation are not destroyed, as they are in chronic alco- 
holism. The tissues are in a more, natural condition, not 
being hard or indurated; neither is the connective tissue 
filled with an unusual amount of albumen at any point. 
The chemicals will penetrate the tissues without any trouble, 
and will reach every part of the body. The arteries and 
cavities should be filled with fluid; enough should be in- 
jected to bloat or swell the body. 

DELIRIUM TREMENS. 

Delirium tremens (mania a potu) is rcr.lly only an inci- 
dent to chronic alcoholism, and results from the long—con- 
tinued action of the poison on the brain. The condition 
was first accurately described early in the nineteenth 
century. The essential nature of the affliction is associated 
with the loss of the cerebral power in the control of thoughts, 
emotions, and muscular action, consequent to an over=excite- 
ment of alcoholic stimuli; sometimes it is immediately de- 
pendent upon the diminution of the degree of excitement to 
which the brain has been accustomed. Death may result iu 
from three to seven days. The greatest mortality in delirium 
tremens is between the ages of twenty-five and fifty. The 
pathological conditions and changes are the same as iin 
chronic alcoholism. 

Treatment. — These cases require very thorough treat- 
ment. The condition of the arteries is very often such as 
to prevent a successful injection of the vascular system, and, 
as all the organs contained in the cavities of the abdomen and 
chest, as well as the brain, are involved, a most thorough 



MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 473 

treatment of them is necessary. Use one of the needle pro- 
cesses for the introduction of fluid into the brain tissue. As 
much fluid as the arteries will receive should be introduced 
into them. The blood should be withdrawn by one of the 
processes given. The lungs should be filled by the injection 
through the trachea. Sometimes there is an effusion in the 
pleural cavities; aspirate to determine that fact; then fill 
the cavities with fluid. The stomach should be injected 
through the esophagus with a stomach=tube, or through the 
hollow=needle inserted in the epigastric region. The cavity 
of the abdomen should be injected to distention, allowing the 
body to remain perfectly level as long as possible, that the 
fluid may be kept in contact with the liver, spleen, pancreas, 
and kidneys. A second injection of the abdominal cavity 
in six to eight hours would be advisable, after aspirating the 
fluid first injected. 

JAUNDICE OF THE NEW BORN. 

The normal red color of the skin in children frequently 
changes on the second, third, or fourth day after birth to a 
yellow or jaundiced hue. The yellow tinge is deeper on the 
face and trunk than on the extremities. There is usually 
no special digestive or constitutional disturbances, although 
weaklings more often present this discoloration than do the 
vigorous. In a large majority of cases, the hue is almost 
certain to vanish within a week or two, leaving no trouble 
behind. Occasionally, though, there are complications which 
produce death, leaving this jaundiced condition of the sur- 
face. 

The cause of this trouble is still a disputed matter. Numer- 
ous theories have been advanced, but no one of these has 
gained universal acceptance to this day. Formerly there 
was a considerable tendency to regard the jaundice as a 
peculiar change taking place in the blood. This was sup- 
posed to be due to the transformation of the pigment of 
broken down corpuscles. This view was supported, to a cer- 
tain extent, by the light color of the urine, and the yellow color 



474 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

of the stools — the yellow color of the stools showing that the 
bile was passing through the ducts, and the light color of 
the urine indicating that it did not contain bile=pigment. 
But more recent and accurate examinations have shown that 
the urine does contain biliary=pignient, as does also, the kid- 
neys of such children as happen to die during the existence 
of the jaundice; biliary acids will he found also in the effu- 
sion of serum in the serous sacs. Therefore, it may be con- 
sidered certain that this discoloration is due to hepatic 
changes. Bui just how the retention of the bile, and the 
consequent absorption by the circulation, are caused, we are 
not able to state. It is possible that the bile is not ejected 
properly, on account of weakness, or the duets may be too 
narrow, or they may be temporarily obstructed by some 
foreign substance. 

It has been noted that after death there is a tendency to 
considerable passive congestion of the liver, with edema of 
Glisson's capsule, and pressure upon the small bile=ducts. 
The Tendency, for the first few days of life, to a comparative- 
ly large amount of bile secretion, due to the destruction of 
considerable numbers of the red globules, should be consid- 
ered carefully. In rare instances, there is complete closure, 
or even absence, of the large biliary ducts, due to malforma- 
tion. Then of course, marked jaundice comes ou at once 
after birth, and is persistent, death resulting after a few 
weeks. 

Treatment. — This discoloration cannot be removed; it is, 
no doubt, due to the bile=pigment, and is a permanent dis- 
coloration, which is located in the middle or soft layer of 
the skin and deeper tissues. These cases may be preserved 
by the injection of fluid into the cavities, with the addition 
of the application of fluid over the entire surface of the body. 
The method of applying the fluid should be through the 
medium of cloths, lintine, or absorbent cotton, which should 
lie soaked in the fluid and placed over the entire surface 
of the body, the whole being covered with some fabric, such 
as rubber cloth or oiled silk, which will prevent the air com- 



MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 475 

ing in contact with the fluid. The tissues, being very soft, 
mar, in due time, absorb a sufficient quantity of fluid to 
sterilize the tissues on the outside of the body. 

DEATH OF MOTHER AND FETUS IN UTERO. 

While the mother is alive, a dead fetus in the womb, thus 
protected from the air, duoes not putrify, but undergoes the 
process of masceration; the whole body becomes soft and 
flaccid, its tissues being infiltrated with fluid; but it has no 
odor. The skin presents points filled with reddish=brown 
serum, and the epidermis is readily detached with slight 
friction. The color of the surface is of a bluish cast, which, 
after exposure to the air, becomes more or less bright=red; 
it is not greenish, as is seen in putrefaction. The cellular 
tissue is infiltrated with bloody serum. The viscera of the 
different cavities have lost their peculiar tints and have be- 
come a reddish=brown color. The cranial bones are un- 
naturally mobile, overlapping one another to a greater ex- 
tent than in life; and the periosteum may be absent from 
them. 

When the death of the mother also takes place, the con- 
ditions of the fetus are quite different. The body of the child 
is immersed in the liquor amnii (water of the womb). This 
water will become filled very quickly with putrefactive bac- 
teria, causing putrefaction to take place almost immediately 
in the fetus. If the liquor amnii were not present, there 
would be no cause for the immediate putrefaction of the fetus. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of a case of this kind it is 
essential to insert the hollow=needle and remove the water 
entirely, or as much of it as possible; then" inject fluid suf- 
ficient to fill the entire cavity of the womb. This takes the 
place of the former fluid, thoroughly immersing the child, 
making it impossible for putrefaction to take place. 

The proper point to insert the needle, to reach the cavity 
of tlic womb, is the median line, between the umbilicus and 
pubic arch. It should be pushed through the wall of the 



47G CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

abdomen, and through the wall of the womb. The womb 
will be found to be a bard substance, and you will readily 
observe when the point has reached the cavity. The child 
may be lying immediately in front of the point, aud the in- 
strument may enter the body of the child, which would pre- 
vent the withdrawal of water. Therefore, it is necessary to 
be careful, and manipulate the instrument in such a manner 
as to reach the water. 

Fluid injected into the arteries of the mother is said to 
reach the child through the arteries and circulation connected 
with the mother, in the same manner that the nourishment 
readies the child while life is present in both child and 
mother. Even if that were the case, the amount reaching 
the fetus, in this manner, would not be sufficient to destroy 
the possibility of putrefaction, as the medium through which 
putrefaction takes place has not been removed. The in- 
jection of fluid into the fetus is not necessary ; as, by filling 
the womb with the fluid, the child will be practically in 
pickle. 

In these eases, the mother should be treated in the usual 
manner, always considering the disease producing death. 
These cases have been troublesome to the embalmer, and very 
frequently questions are asked concerning them, and ex- 
periences related in regard to them; but the method given 
above, if followed carefully, will result in every instance in 
a thoroughly preserved case. 

SENILITY OR OLD AGE. 
Senility I old age) is the condition of the body which usual- 
ly supervenes naturally after the seventieth year, but some- 
times occurs earlier. We do not know why the body should 
gradually decline after it reaches a state of maturity and 
vigor, but such is the case, to a greater or less extent. The 
most characteristic change of the structure is progressive 
atrophy of almost all of the tissues and organs of the body. 
The degree of waste varies, but the weight and height is 



MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 477 

diminished generally, except in those persons who carry with 
them through this age an increase of fat or adipose tissue. 

Among the organs which exhibit simple atrophy in the 
highest degree are the brain and spinal cord, organs of gen- 
eration in both sexes, the mucous membrane and glands of 
the digestive tract, the mucous membrane of the bronchi and 
bladder, the spleen, the lymphatic glands, and the kidneys. 
The muscles waste, the teeth fall out, and the bones become 
thin and deficient in animal matter — some much altered, 
as, for instance, the lower jaw. 

Among the most important changes, and one that exercises 
a very direct influence on tissue nutrition, is the excessive 
shrinking and even obliteration of the capillaries in almost 
all textures. The skin becomes much diminished in thick- 
ness, especially in the inner layer. When this occurs, it is 
easily seen why in old age there will follow, after the in- 
jection of fluid into the arterial system, greenish, brownish, 
and soft spots, in the different parts of the body, especially 
noticeable in the face, neck, and hands.- The products of de- 
generation may accumulate in the tissues and cause them 
to be thicker than they are in health, as is seen in the ves- 
sels, the walls of which are much thicker than normal. The 
blood contains fewer corpuscles and solid constituents, is 
more watery, and coagulates more readily; also the total 
quantity is less. The pericardium, the endocardium, and 
the capsules of the liver and spleen, are opaque and tough- 
ened. Degeneration of the cardiac substance may lead to 
a state of asthenia, which gradually produces death. Dila- 
tation of the orifices of the heart may be the more prominent 
lesion, or they may be contracted by atheroma, or by thick- 
ening of the valves or rings. Indeed, all kinds of cardiac 
lesions are met with in old age. The lungs are changed more 
or less, increasing the bronchial secretions, which during life 
have been al tended by severe paroxysms of coughing. 

Treatment. — In many cases death lias resulted from pneu- 
monia, requiring the lungs to be treated specially. The 
embalmer meets with something that he terms peculiar in 



478 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

these cases. As is stated, there is generally an asthenic 
condition in most bodies, and apparently only a small amount 
of fluid would be needed to prevent putrefaction. But, as is 
seen in the above description of the anatomical changes that 
take place, all the organs are more or less a fleeted. 

But it seems that the structural changes that cause the 
embalmer the most trouble occur in the capillaries, they be- 
ing frequently extensively shrunken or obliterated entirely in 
all parts of the body. When this condition exists, it is utterly 
impossible to fill the tissues with fluid, which is necessaiy 
to destroy the bacteria of putrefaction, so that it must be 
expected, that, in many cases, soft, brown, and green spots 
will follow the usual methods of embalming. When these 
ppots do occur, fluid should be injected into the tissues di- 
rect, especially in the affected parts. 

GANGRENE— MORTIFICATION. 

Senile Gangrene. 

Gangrene is liable to occur in any part of the body, it 
is due to the destruction of the circulation in that part. It 
may be either moist or dry, acute or chronic. The failure 
of the circulation in the part may be due to the presence of 
a blood=clot, or to destruction of the vessels carrying nutri- 
tion to the part, as in case of an accident. 

In senile gangrene, the walls of the arteries become ossified, 
losing their elasticity; they thus fail to aid in forcing the 
blood into the part, and a clot forms within the vessel. This 
usually occurs in the lower extremities, following some in- 
jurious stimulation of the tissues, as a slight abrasion of the 
foot, injury to a corn, or a severe cold, which sets up inflam- 
mation in the already weakened part. These, by still further 
obstructions of the circulation therein, impairing their vital- 
ity, cause death. 

In an extremity, for example, decomposition proceeds as 
follows: Gases are generated in the part, principally sul- 
phureted hydrogen, ammonia, and carbonic acid, the tis- 



MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES 479 

sues at the time undergo the process of softening or lique- 
faction, the part becoming exceedingly offensive, and, owing 
to alterations in the transuded coloring matter of the blood, 
changes from a reddish to a brownish or greenish=blaek 
color. This is known as moist gangrene. It occurs only in 
external parts and those internal organs to which the air is 
freely accessible, as the lungs and mucous membrane of the 
respiratory tract. The gases arising from the parts affected 
in this manner have a very strong, unpleasant odor, which 
will penetrate every part of the room, and is tenacious and 
will remain for some length of time, unless destroyed by the 
use of some deodorant. 

In dry gangrene, the odor is not usually so strong; the 
parts do not assume the same changes that are noticed in the 
moist form of gangrene. They appear to the observer more 
like mummified tissue or like a piece of charcoal. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of gangrene, especially of 
the moist variety, the parts should be washed with hot water, 
to which a small amount of carbolic acid, say four per cent, 
is added. After immersing the parts, desiccating or harden- 
ing compound should be sprinkled freely over them ; then the 
extremities should be wrapped in a cloth, covering every 
part, followed by a roller bandage, a number of layers of 
which should be applied. Inject the body in the usual man- 
ner, filling the arteries and capillaries as in an ordinary case. 

SUNSTROKE. 

Sunstroke is a condition resulting from excessive exposure 
to heat. This disease does not follow direct exposure to 
the rays of the sun only, as its name indicates, but exposure 
to excessive heat with physical exertion in boiler rooms of 
ships and other extremely hot places, will produce the disease 
termed sunstroke ; the attack may even come on at night. 
The condition is usually that of prostration, collapse, rest- 
lessness, and, in severe cases, delirium, which follow each 
other in the order named. The surface of the body is cool, 



480 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

the pulse small and rapid, and the temperature may be as 
low as «J5 to 96° F. 

Rigor mortis comes on early. Putrefactive changes begin 
with great rapidity. Venous engorgement in the brain and 
its membranes is extreme. The venous trunks and right 
side of the heart are full of blood, and the pulmonary ves- 
sels may be greatly engorged. The blood itself is very dark 
and more fluid than normal; the left ventricle of the heart, 
usually, is contracted, while the right is dilated. There is 
great congestion of the lungs. Changes occur in the paren- 
chyma of the liver and kidneys. The face becomes dark and 
swollen; the brain retains a high temperature for some time 
after death ; gases follow quickly; purging and general putre- 
faction soon begin. 

Treatment. — A case of death from sunstroke, should re- 
ceive heroic treatment; as is noted above, putrefactive 
changes take place wry early. The blood should be removed 
quickly; the femoral artery and vein should be raised for 
the purpose of injecting fluid and withdrawing blood; the 
body should be placed on a high incline; the drainage=tube 
inserted in the vein so as to reach above Poupart's ligament, 
and tied; the artery raised and the arterial tube introduced 
as usual, and fluid injected, while the blood gravitates from 
the vein ; the blood being thin will run freely. If the femoral 
vein is used for the withdrawal of blood, the greater part 
of I he blood in the body may be forced out by this method. 

A large quantity of fluid should be injected. From one to 
one and a half gallons should be injected into the arteries of 
a body weighing 150 lbs., and a proportionate amount into 
those weighing more or less. After filling the arteries, the 
cavities should be treated in the usual manner. The lungs 
should be treated through the trachea, using enough fluid 
l<» fill the whole respiratory tract. One of the needle pro- 
cesses might be used with benefit, as the congestion is so 
great in the cranial viscera that it might impede the flow of 
fluid through the small cranial arteries. 



PART FOURTH 



BACTERIOLOGY, SANITATION, AND DISINFECTION 



INTRODUCTION TO PART FOURTH. 



It is only within the last few decades that much progress has been 
made in the science of sanitation. Previous to the middle of the present 
(nineteenth) century, general sanitation was not practiced as it is to-day. 
The protection of a community from disease and epidemics in general was 
scarcely considered. 

When the cholera, the plague, or the yellow fever entered our borders, 
it ran like wildfire over the land, destroying the lives of many of the in- 
habitants in the courses over which it traveled. 

It is true, ships were cleansed in the ordinary way, but disinfection did 
not necessarily follow; at least it was not carried out properly. The har- 
bors, streets, outhouses, alleys, etc., were filled with all kinds of filth, 
wherein infectious matter lay in wait for its victims. It was not thought 
necessary to destroy any such matter, as it was not known that disease 
lurked within. 

It was not until science proved that many diseases, and especially those 
that prevail as epidemics, were caused by micro-organisms, which inhabi- 
ted the filth in our streets, alleys, drainage systems, etc., that sanitary 
measures were adopted. 

The governments of most of the States and nations have taken up the 
matter, and have enforced sanitary measures to such an extent that epi- 
demics of all kinds are now almost completely under control. When 
contagious diseases make their appearance, such safeguards are thrown 
around the patient that it is almost impossible for dissemination to take 
place. 

All embalmers should become sanitarians. They should take up the 
subject for their own protection against disease. They should prepare to 
defend themselves against the apparent arbitrary ruling of health boards, 
by fitting themselves to become intelligent members of such boards, for. the 
purpose of taking care of their own interests as well as to protect the pub- 
lic health. 

Each undertaker should be able to give advice as well as to disinfect all 
materials connected with the death chamber, as during the time of mourn- 
ing, it is very important that sanitary measures be enforced, which can be 
done best by the funeral director or embalmer. 

In the following chapters we have aimed to give a brief history of bac- 
teriology, infection, disinfection, and sanitation; the best methods that are 
practiced at present in sanitation; rules for shipping bodies, etc. 

482 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 



BACTERIOLOGY. 



HISTORY OF BACTERIOLOGY. 

During the seventeenth century, Athanasius Kircher mis- 
took blood and pus corpuscles for small worms, and built up 
on his mistake a new theory of disease and putrefaction. 
Christian Lange, a professor of Pathological Anatomy, in 
Leipsic, expressed his opinion that the purpura of lying=in 
women, measles, and other fevers, were the result of putre- 
faction caused by worms or animalcula. From time to time 
since then, a "Pathologia Animata" has been put forward to 
explain the causation of disease. Imperfect as were the ob- 
servations, and crude as was the theory on which it was based, 
it is marvelous that Kircher, with the simple lenses he had at 
his disposal, was able to make out as much as he did. These 
lenses magnified only about thirty=two diameters, or one 
thousand times. His observations were not generally cred- 
ited, which was natural enough. They were received with 
chilling incredulity by his contemporaries. 

Remarkable as were Kircher's observations, still more 
wonderful were those of Anthony von Leeuwenhoek. Leeu- 
wenhoek was born at Delft, Holland, in 1632. He was not 
considered liberally educated, as he had been apprenticed in 
his early years to a linen draper. During his apprenticeship 
he learned the art of lens grinding, which enabled him ulti- 
mately to produce the first really good microscope that had 
been constructed. By this instrument he could see much 
smaller objects than had hitherto been seen by microscopes in 
use at that time. 

It was in the year 1075 that he gave birth to the study of 
bacteria by the observations lie then made with his micro- 



484 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

scope. He was still following in the trade of the linen draper 
in Amsterdam at the time he made his discoveries. He pub- 
lished the fad that he could detect living motile animalcules 
of the very smallest dimensions — smaller than anything that 
had heretofore been seen — by means of his perfected lens. He 
continued his work to the examination of various materials 
for the presence of animal life, as he considered it, in its most 
minute form. In sea water, in well water, in his own diar- 
rheal stools, and in the intestinal canals of frogs ami birds, 
he found micro=organisms, whose morphology differed, and 
which also differed in the peculiarity of their movements. 

Later, he examined the tartar scraped from between the 
teeth, and discovered a form of micro=organisin upon which 
he laid great stress. He contributed a paper on this discov- 
ery, which, on September 14, 1683, was presented to the royal 
Society of London. This paper was important because of the 
careful description given of the objective nature of the bodies 
seen by him and for the illustrations which accompanied it. 
Leeuwenhoek, with his lens, had undoubtedly seen the bodies 
which we now recognize as bacteria. 

He was greatly astonished when he saw distributed every- 
where through the material which he was examining, animal- 
cules of the most microscopic dimensions, which moved them- 
selves about in a remarkably energetic way. Describing them, 
he says: tk I saw with very great astonishment, especially in 
the material mentioned, that there were many extremely 
small animals which moved about in the most amusing fash- 
ion ; the largest of these | represented by him in an admirable 
figure) showed the liveliest and most active motion, moving 
through rain=water or saliva like a fish of prey darts through 
the water; this form, though few in actual numbers, was met 
with everywhere; a second form moved round, often in a cir- 
cle, or in a kind of curve; these were present in greater num- 
bers. The form <»f a third kind T could not distinguish 
clearly; sometimes it appeared oblong, sometimes quite 



BACTERIOLOGY 485 

round. They were very tiny, in addition to which they moved 
forward so rapidly that they tore through one another. I had 
the impression that I saw several thousands in a single drop 
of water or saliva which was mixed with a small part of the 
above=named material not larger than a grain of sand, even 
when nine parts of water or saliva were added to one part of 
the material taken from the incisor or molar teeth. Further 
examination of the material showed that out of a large num- 
ber which were very different in length, all were of the same 
thickness. Some were curved, some straight, lying irregu- 
larly and interlaced." 

Plenciz, a Vienna physician, a believer in the work of Leeu- 
wenhoek, in 1762, made observations confirming the discover- 
ies of the latter. He claimed a casual relation between the 
micro=organisms discovered and described by Leeuwenhoek 
and all infectious diseases. He also claimed that infection 
could be nothing else than a living substance, and endeavored 
to explain the variations in the incubation period of the dif- 
ferent infectious diseases on these grounds. He believed that 
the micro=organisms were capable of multiplying in the liv- 
ing body, and spoke of the possibilities of the transmission of 
infection through the air. He taught that each disease had 
its special germ, on the principle that only one kind of grain 
can grow from a given cereal. 

He found innumerable minute animalcula in all decom- 
posing matter, and was so thoroughly convinced of their etio- 
logical relation to the process, that he formulated the law 
that decomposition can only take place when the decompos 
able material becomes coated with a layer of the organisms, 
;iik1 can proceed only when they increase and multiply. 

The arguments of Plenciz were looked upon by some as the 
imaginations of an unbalanced mind, and by others as en- 
tirely absurd. 

Oxanam, in 1820, expressed himself on flic subject as fol- 
lows: "Many authors have written concerning the animal na- 
ture <>f the contagion of infectious diseases; many have in- 



486 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

deed assumed it to be developed from animal substances and 
that it is itself animal and possesses the property of life. 1 
shall not waste time in efforts to refute these absurd hy- 
potheses/* 

Many other medical men expressed similar opinions during 
this time, doubting the possibility of animal life existing in 
these micro=organisms. 

The true relation of the lower organisms to infectious dis- 
eases was established scientifically, just before the middle of 
the present century, by the coincidence of a number of im- 
portant discoveries. The cause of putrefaction in beer and 
the souring of wine, by Pasteur ; the finding of rod=shaped 
organisms in the blood of all the animals that die of splenic 
fever (anthrax) by Pollender and Davaine; and the knowl- 
edge of the parasitic nature of certain diseases of plants, 
aroused attention to the old question of animal contagion. 
Benle was the first to logically teach this doctrine of infec- 
tion. The principal point that had occupied the attention of 
scientific men from time to time, up to the middle of this cen- 
tury, was the origin of these miero=organisms. One side 
claimed that they descended from creatures that existed pre- 
viously, of the same kind. Xeedham, in 1749, held firmly to 
the doctrine of spontaneous generation, as a result of vegeta- 
tion changes in the substances in which they were found. He 
experimented with a grain of barley placed in a watch crys- 
tal of water, carefully covered, allowed it to germinate, and 
claimed that the bacteria that were present were the result 
of changes in the barley grain itself, incidental to its germi- 
nation. 

Spallanzani, in 1769, drew attention to the laxity of Need- 
ham's methods, and demonstrated that, if infusions of decom- 
posable vegetable matter were placed in llasks, hermetically 
sealed, then allowed to remain in boiling water for some time, 
no living organisms nor decomposition would appear in the 
infusion so treated. Obiection was raised to this method, on 
the ground that the high temperature to which the infusion 
had been raised had so altered them, and the air around them, 



BACTERIOLOGY 487 

that the favorable conditions no longer existed to sponta- 
neous generation. To meet this objection he took one of the 
flasks that had been boiled and tapped it gently against some 
hard object until he produced a very minute crack ; organisms 
and decomposition appeared, as in infusions that were not so 
treated. 

Very little advance was made from this time until 1836, 
when Schulze called attention to the subject by his investi- 
gations. He allowed air, deprived of its organisms by pass- 
ing through a strong acid or alkalin solution, to gain access 
to boiled infusions, and no living organisms or decomposition 
appeared in the infusions. 

Schwann, in 1873, robbed air of its organisms by passing it 
through highly heated tubes into his infusions. 

Schroder and VonDusch interposed cotton wool between 
the infusion and the air, robbing the air of its microorgan- 
isms as it passed into the infusions by infiltration. 

Hoffman, in 1860, and Pasteur, in 1861, demonstrated that 
all that was necessary was to draw out the neck of the flask 
into a fine tube, bend it down along the side of the flask, and 
then bend it up again a few inches from its extremity, and 
leave the mouth open, to prevent the access of bacteria to the 
infusion in the flask, as when boiled the drop of water of con- 
densation in the lower angle will avert the organisms and 
none can enter the flask. Doubters still existed and some still 
held out for "spontaneous generation," wanting further 
proof, when, in 1876-77, Prof. Tyndall made his investiga- 
tions upon the floating matter in the air, and demonstrated 
that these organisms, being present in decomposing fluids, 
were always to be explained, either by the pre=existence of 
similar living forms in the infusion, or upon the walls of the 
vessel containing it, or, by the infusion having been exposed 
to rhe air which had not been deprived of its organisms. 

Though it is during the past thirty years that the research 
in this line has received its greatest impulse, yet it was de- 
veloping for at leasl two centuries. 



X 



4SS CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

Indeed, modern hygiene owes nnieh of its value to a more 
intimate acquaintance with the biological activities of the 
micro=organisnis. Also, our knowledge in regard to infec- 
tious diseases lias been developed to the present position. 
Though the contributions of the last few years have done 
more to place bacteriology on the footing- of a science, yet dur- 
ing the earlier years of its development, many were the obser- 
vations made, which formed the ground=work for a great deal 
of that which has followed. 

BACTERIA— THEIR FORMS AND GROWTH. 
The organisms known as bacteria are members of the low- 
est group of the plant kingdom. The entire body consists of 
a single cell, which is a minute mass of a substance called 

p r o t o p 1 a s m a , 
semisolid, gelat i n - 
mis substance, 
which, viewed with 
the ordinary micro- 
scope, is apparently 
homogeneous, b u t 
which, according to 
Altmann, consists 
* •$ ^ of small granules of 

Fig. 58. Colonies of Bacteria. jm albuminous na . 

ture, embedded in a similar, structureless, albuminous ma- 
trix. These elementary granules or granuhe are often ar- 
ranged in threads, sometimes in such a way as to form a 
sponge=like network. It is the simplest and lowest form of 
a living thing now known, a true elementary organism or seat 
of life. Growth and reproduction are always met with in the 
cell. Each cell contains a definite, rounded body, called the 
nucleus; also, many cells, especially plant cells, are sur- 
rounded by a dense Avail or cell membrane. In bacteria, the 
spore corresponds to the seed in flowering plants, but con- 
tains no embryo. Usuallv it is a single=celled body. 




BACTERIOLOGY 489 

Many bacteria possess the faculty of self=movement, car- 
rying themselves in all manner of ways across the field of the 
microscope, some very quickly and others leisurely. Some 
bacteria vibrate in themselves, appearing to move, but do not 
change their place. Little threads or lashes (fiagella) are 
found attached to many of the motile bacteria, either at the 
poles or along the sides, sometimes only one, and on some sev- 
eral, forming a tuft. These fiagella are in constant motion 
and can be considered as organs of locomotion. 

Bacteria multiply either through simple division, or 
through fructification by means of small rounded or oval 
bodies, called spores, from spora (seed). If by division, the 
cell elongates, and at one portion, usually the middle, the 
cell=wall indents itself gradually, forming a septum and di- 
viding the cell into two equal parts. These are called fission 
bacteria. Each bacterium gives rise to but one spore ; it may 
be at either end or in the middle. Some rods take on a pecul- 
iar shape at the site of the spore, making the rod look like a 
drum=stick. 

What the real contents of the spores are is not known. In 
the mother cell, at the site of the spore, little granules have 
been found which are different from the rest of the cell, and 
these are supposed to be the beginnings, or sporogenous bod- 
ies. The most important part of the spore is its 
capsule. To this it owes its resisting power. The 
capsule consists of two separate layers, a thin 
membrane around the cell and a firm gelatinous 
envelope. When the spore is brought into favor- 
able conditions, it begins to lose its shining ap- 
pearance. The outer, firm membrane begins to 
swell, and it now assumes the shape and size of 
the one from which it sprang, the capsule having Fig. 

burst so as to allow the young bacillus to be set strjtoco^x^olj 
free. A certain amount of heat and oxygen are U ,lu sse). 
necessary for the formation of spores. Spores are not easily 
influenced by external measures because of the very tenacious 




490 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

envelope. It is said to be the most resisting object of the 
whole organic- world. 

Chemical and physical agents that easily destroy other life 
have very little effect upon spores. Many spores subjected 
to a dry heat at a temperature of 284° F. require several 
hours to destroy them. The spores of the various potato 
bacilli can withstand the application of steam at 212° F. for 
four hours. 

In the earlier studies of bacterial forms, certain kinds with 
marked characteristics were found in connection with vari- 
ous specific diseases and specific decompositions. These 
could be distinguished from one another with such ease that 
particular stress was laid upon the description of such typ- 
ical regulation forms. It came to be recognized later, how- 
ever, that these different cells are linked together by all pos- 
sible intermediate stages. In order to permit of a rapid ori- 
entation it has become, therefore, a general practice to enu- 
merate only three chief form groups. 

1. — Coccus forms (cocci or microcci), comprising spherical 
or ellipsoid cells. 

2. — Ivod=shaped forms (bacilli), plainly elongated in one 
direction. These may be distinguished, according to their 
lengths, as long and short rods. Many rods have an approx- 
imately uniform diameter throughout, and the ends may be 
either rectangular in outline or more or less rounded. In 
some rods the diameter of the cell varies in different portions, 
so as to produce a spindle=shaped or club=shaped cell, or one 
fashioned like a pestle, or a whetstone or drum=stick. Rods 
may be rigid or flexible, and, in the latter case, often appear 
curved. 

3. — Cork=screw forms (spirilla) comprise all spirally= 
twisted bacteria. The smallest forms often resemble rods 
bent with a comma=like flexure. The screws may be rigid or 
flexible, of equal diameter throughout, or varying in diam- 
eter at different points. 

Bacteria develop from pre=existing bacteria, or the spores 
of the same. They are not produced spontaneously. They 
are found almost everywhere upon the surface of the earth. 



BACTERIOLOGY 



491 



feflSt 






1U> 




fta 




Tith^: 




W 




1. Spheroidal bacteria _ (micrococcus pyogenes), one of the most common species 

of bacteria, causing suppuration. 

2. Spheroidal bacteria arranged in pairs (diplococcus). 

3. Spheroidal bacteria grouped in cuboidal masses (sarcina). 

4. Spheroidal bacteria grouped in chains (streptococcus erysipelatos), producing 

erysipelas. 

5. Diplococci, slightly lance-shaped, and surrounded by a capsule (diplococcus 

pneumoniae), causing acute pneumonia. 
0. Bacteria causing typhoid fever (typhoid bacilli). 

7. Bacilli with cilia. 

8. Bacilli with spores (bacilli tetanei). producing lockjaw. 
!). The bacillus of consumption (bacillus tuberculosis). 

10. The bacterium of diphtheria (bacillus diphtheria). 

11. The spirillum of Asiatic cholera (spirillum cholerse Asiatics). 

12. The spirillum of recurrent fever (spirillum Obermeieri). 



492 CHAM PI OX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

Their wide and almost universal diffusion is due to the mi- 
nuteness of the eells and the few requirements for their ex- 
istence. They arc disseminated specially by being carried on 
the floating particles of the air. There are very few places 
free from germs. It is said that the air on the high seas and 
on the mountain tops is free from bacteria, but this is ques- 
tionable. 

It is not supposed that one kind of bacteria will produce 
another kind ; that is, a bacillus does not arise from a coccus, 
nor vice versa, nor will a typhoid fever bacillus produce a 
bacillus of tetanus. 

Bacteria which live on the dead remains of organic life are 
known as saprophytic, and those which choose the living bod- 
ies of other fellow=creatures are called parasitic. Some, how- 
ever, develop equally well as saprophytes and parasites. 
These are called faculative. 

A temperature ranging from 50° to 100° F. is necessary to 
the living growth of most bacteria, but some will develop at a 
lower and some at a higher. As a rule, the saprophytes take 
the lower temperature, the parasites taking the normal tem- 
perature of the body. Some forms require a nearly constant 
heat, growing within very small limits, as the bacillus of 
tuberculosis. A majority of bacteria will be destroyed at a 
temperature of 140° P., while freezing will prevent the 
growth of all ; in fact, several times freezing and thawing will 
be fatal. 

Certain kinds of bacteria will grow only when air or oxy- 
gen is present. These are called aerobic. Others cannot live 
when oxygen or air is present. These are called anaerobic. 

Sunlight is a disinfectant, and is very destructive to bac- 
teria. Anthrax bacteria have been destroyed upon a few 
hours' exposure to the sun. Tubercular bacilli have been de- 
stroyed after two days' exposure to daylight, Electricity ar- 
rests the growth of bacteria. 

Bacteria feeding upon organic compounds produce chem- 
ical changes in them, not only by the withdrawal of certain 



BACTERIOLOGY 



493 



r< 



elements, but also by the excretion of these elements changed 
by digestion. The processes of oxidation and reduction are 
carried on by some bacteria, Sometimes chemical products, 
such as ammonia, hydrogen sulphid, etc., are produced by 
bacteria. Complex alkaloids are found sometimes which 
closely resemble those found in ordinary plants, and which 
a r e named ptomaines, 
because obtained from 
putrefying objects. Fer- 
mentation is due to the 
direct action of vegeta- 
ble organisms. Many 
bacteria have the power 
of ferments. Fermenta- 
tion, when occurring in 
organic substances and 
accompanied by the de- 
velopment of offensive 
gases, is called putrefac- 




K JOk 



f 









Fig. 61. Bacillus Cadaveris. 
Smear preparation from liver of yellow fever cad- 
aver, kept forty-eight hours in an antiseptic wrapping, 
X 1000. From photomicrograph (Sternberg). 



tion, and is due entire- 
ly to bacteria. 

Diseases which are 
called infectious are pathological processes or changes 
caused by bacteria, and the germs which produce them are 
called disease=producing or pathogenic bacteria. Those 
which do not form any pathological processes are called non= 
pathogenic bacteria. 

Some bacteria arc endowed with the property of forming 
pigments, either in themselves, or by producing a chromo- 
gcnic body, which, when set free, gives rise to the pigment. 
In some cases the pigments have been isolated and many of 
the properties of the anilin dyes discovered in them. 

Many bacteria have the power to form light, giving to 
various objects which they inhabit a characteristic glow or 
phosphorescence. 



494 CHAM PI OX TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Many bacteria, especially anaerobic, produce both noxious 
and odorless gases. Some germs form odors characteristic 
of them — some, sweet, aromatic ; others, foul, disagreeable 
smells; and some, sour or racid exhalations. 

The life of bacteria usually is of short duration; with age 
they lose their strength and die. 

Bacteria thus carry on all the functions of high organic 
life. They breathe, eat, digest, and multiply, and are very 
busy workers. 

There are many classes of bacteria, but it is not necessary 
to enter into their minute classification. It is sufficient to 
understand those with which we have to deal as embalmers, 
viz., those that produce putrefaction and those that cause 
infection. 

BACTERIA IN AIR, WATER, AND EARTH. 

The means by which bacteria are distributed are air and 
water. The air in the low valleys and upon the level surfaces 
of the earth is filled usually with 
floating particles, consisting of 
dust, etc., that are loaded with bac- 
teria. In the higher altitudes, 
there are fewer bacteria floating in 
the air; in fact in the extremely 
high altitudes, where there is no 
moisture, there will be very few, 
if any, so that neither disease nor 
putrefaction will occur. Neither 
are they found in the air on the 
Fig. 62. Baciiius'Tubercuiosis, high seas. The air coining from 

From a culture on glicerin-agar, X n ff f] ip con nlnno- flip POiTit i<s fonml 
1000 From a photomicrograph by OU Llle bt<l iHOUg Llie MMSl IS iOUUO 

Frankel and Pfeiffer. tQ conta j n but f ew> w hile that Coin- 

ing across the land is full of bacteria. Many of them are 
spore=producing, while others are not. 

It must be remembered, too, that light and sunlight 
destroy both living germs and spores, which makes it im- 




BACTERIOLOGY 495 

possible for them to retain vitality a great while when float- 
ing in the air; but some are very resistent to light, being 
what we term tenacious. These may float in the air any 
length of time, or be exposed to strong sunlight for a con- 
siderable period, without being affected by sunlight. Such 
as these may be carried in the air to distant parts and still 
retain their vitality. 

Moisture screens the air, to a certain extent, of bacteria, 
as when passing over the surface of the water, or while a 
current is passing through a room with moist walls and hang- 
ing fabrics. If the surfaces of the walls are examined with 
the microscope, they will be found to be covered with large 
quantities of bacteria. 

When bacteria are floating in the air, they fill the air we 
breathe, and at each inspiration, many bacteria are taken in- 
to the system. These are deposited upon the mucous sur- 
faces of the respiratory tract, and the chances are that but 
few reach the lungs. It is found by experiment, when ani- 
mals are exposed to a current of air containing bacteria of 
a certain kind, that, after continuous inhalation for some 
length of time, bacteria will be found in large numbers on 
the mucous surfaces of the trachea and bronchi. If deposited 
on the mucous surface of the mouth, they will be taken into 
the alimentary tract during deglutition (swallowing), but, 
when taken into the system in this manner, they are likely 
tc be destroyed on reaching the stomach — that is, if there is 
a normal condition of the digestive organs. If starvation 
exists, or if the stomach has been overloaded, they will pass 
directly through into the lower portion of the alimentary 
canal. The presence of hydrochloric acid in the stomach 
during normal digestion, or when the digestive organs are 
in a perfectly healthy state, will destroy bacteria and their 
spores. For the above reason many persons are supposed 
to be immune from disease, when the digestion is perfectly 
normal, that would be affected when the digestion is weak- 
ened by disease. 



496 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Bacteria are found in all surface water, such as lakes, 
ponds, pools, open wells, large and small streams, creeks, and 
rivers. Water of the streams carries bacteria from one point 
to another. The water of the drainage channels may carry 
infections bacteria to a great distance, disseminating dis- 
ease along its route, where water is used for culinary and 
drinking purposes. Fecal matter and other infectious ma- 
terial, that have been thrown into sewers, which empty into 
streams, or have been thrown into the streams themselves, 
are carried to larger streams, which furnish cities with their 
water supply. The pathogenic bacteria are there pumped 
into the water pipes, which carry the water and distribute 
it to the different parts of the city, where it is used, thus 
disseminating disease. 

Non=pathogenic bacteria are found in the earth near the 
surface and all places where vegetation exists. The patho- 
genic bacteria which cause bubonic plague, anthrax, tetanus, 
etc., are found frequently in the earth in the locality where 
the disease previously prevailed, especially in the countries 
of the torrid regions. These bacteria sometimes retain their 
vitality for a long time, and may be the means of developing 
the disease when the source is seemingly obscure. For this 
reason all excreta and the affected material from patients 
dying of infectious diseases, should be disposed of by being 
burned, deeply buried, or thoroughly disinfected. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 



INFECTION AND CONTAGION. 



An infectious disease is one that is caused by the invasion 
and multiplication within the body of pathogenic organisms 
derived from various sources, as from the air we breathe, the 
water we drink, the food we eat, and the clothes we wear. 

A contagious disease is an infectious disease that is com- 
municable from one person to another, either directly or in- 
directly, as by contact, or through the air near by, etc. 

For an infectious disease to develop in the living organism, 
a disposition towards the disease must be present. For in- 
stance, if the tubercular bacilli come into contact with the 
lung tissue of one born of consumptive parents, consumption 
will develop ; while, with those born or parents in whom no 
consumption=taints exist, the tubercular bacilli will not 
grow, even when received into the lungs. Usually disease 
germs can afford opportunity, for the manifestation of this 
disposition, only when they come in contact with it. That 
is the broad meaning of the word infection. From this 
viewpoint, accordingly, the condition of the general surround- 
ings of life, such as air, water, soil, and kind of nourishment, 
may be of importance, by virtue of being the means by which 
the disease germ is first introduced into the body, and should 
be considered carefully. 

The various channels through which bacteria enter the body 
are the mouth, lungs, and skin. The organs affected in an 
infectious disease are sometimes at the place where the dis- 
ease germ enters, and sometimes in tissues remote but more 
disposed toward the disease. From this standpoint, we clas- 
sify only those diseases as contagious, which can be directly 

497 



408 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

communicated by mere contact with the sick; and those as 
noncontagious which arc not transmitted directly from the 
sick, but are caused by external agents. Both probabilities 
of communication exist in the greal majority of infectious 
diseases; one or the other is the more usual merely. If this 
be the case, such infectious diseases as malaria, typhoid 
i\>\rv, cholera, etc., are not contagious, but smallpox, scarla- 
tina, measles, etc., are always contagious. The word con- 
tagion is used in a much narrower sense than that of in- 
fection. It should be remembered that all contagious dis- 
eases are infectious, but all infectious diseases are not con- 
tagious. 

The embalmer should be very careful in the preparation of 
bodies dying from contagion, as disease can be disseminated 
very easily when persons are allowed to come in contact with 
a body that is not properly disinfected. All measures that 
he may be able to apply to prevent such a result should be 
employed. He should follow strictly the rules adopted by 
the health boards of his community and the shipping agents 
of the country. Neither bribery nor influence of any kind 
should deter the embalmer from his duty, as a failure to 
prepare a body properly may result in the prevalence of an 
endemic or epidemic, which would menace the lives of many. 

CHANNELS OF INFECTION. 
The common mode of infection in tetanus, erysipelas, hospi- 
tal gangrene, and all other traumatic infectious diseases, is 
through an open wound or abrasion of the skin. Infectious 
diseases that are not traumatic may also be transmitted in the 
same way. The possibility of infection occurring through 
the broken skin has been proved by a number of bacteriolo- 
gists. That tuberculosis has been transmitted to man by ac- 
cidental inoculation of an open wound has been demonstrated 
satisfactorily. This being the case, other infectious diseases 
may be transmitted in a similar manner. 



INFECTION AND CONTAGION 499 

There is no doubt that infection may occur also through 
the mucous membrane of the respiratory organs, which is 
shown by the experiments of Buchner; this has also been 
demonstrated by a number of bacteriologists, Buchner mixed 
dry anthrax spores with lycopodiuni powder, and caused mice 
and guinea pigs to respire an atmosphere containing this 
powder in suspension. In sixty=six experiments of which 
he noted the results, fifty died of anthrax, nine of pneumonia, 
and seven survived. It was proved, by comparative experi- 
ments, in which animals were fed with double the quantity 
of spores used in the inhalation, that infection did not occur 
through the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal. In 
his experiments on thirty=five animals fed in this way, but a 
small number contracted anthrax. It was demonstrated 
by the microscopic examination of sections, and by culture 
experiments, that the infection occurred through the lungs. 
These experiments showed that the lungs were extensively 
invaded, while, in many of the cases, no bacilli were found 
in the spleen. It seems to be well established that in man 
infection of anthrax may occur by way of the respiratory 
organs. 

SUSCEPTIBILITY AND IMMUNITY. 
In general biology, no questions are more interesting or 
more important, from a practical viewpoint, than those which 
relate to the susceptibility of certain species of bacteria, and 
those that relate to the natural or acquired immunity from 
such pathogenic action, which is possessed by other animals. 
That certain infectious diseases, now demonstrated to be 
caused by micro-organisms, prevail only or principally 
among animals of single species, lias long been known. Ty- 
phoid fever, cholera, and relapsing fever are diseases of man; 
the lower animals do not suffer from them when they are 
prevailing as an epidemic. Conversely, man has immunity 
from many discuses which are infectious among lower ani- 
mals. Exceptional susceptibility and immunity may be due 
to family or race characteristics; thus, the white race is more 



500 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

susceptible to yellow fever than the colored race. Again, 
this disease is not so fatal in its results among the Latin 
races of the tropics, as among the inhabitants of Northern 
Europe. Among negroes and dark-skinned people, small- 
pox is exceptionally fatal. 

A single attack commonly confers immunity from subse- 
quent attacks in infectious diseases. This is true of erup- 
tive fevers, yellow fever, mumps, whooping cough, and, to 
some extent at least, of typhoid fever and syphilis, but is 
no! true of epidemic influenza, croupous pneumonia, and 
Asiatic cholera. In these latter diseases second attacks fre- 
quently occur. Diphtheria, erysipelas, and gonorrhea, are 
localized infectious diseases, and do not prevent subsequent 
attacks. 

There are two classes into which we are able to group in- 
fectious diseases. In one there is general infection followed 
by immunity; in the other, local infection without subsequent 
immunity. The immunity, following attacks of the eruptive 
fevers and specific, febrile, infectious diseases generally, is 
not absolute. Although a large majority of those who suffer 
an attack of smallpox, scarlet fever, or yellow fever have an 
immunity for life, second attacks do occur occasionally. 

It seems probable that a certain degree of immunity, of 
limited duration, is acquired in the diseases named in which 
one attack is not recognized generally as preventing future 
attacks. The invaded tissues in localized infection, as in 
gonorrhea and erysipelas, appear after a time to acquire a 
certain tolerance to the pathogenic action of the invading 
parasite, and no doubt recovery would occur from these dis- 
eases after a time without medical assistance. In some dis- 
eases, such as diphtheria, cholera, and epidemic influenza, 
a certain degree of immunity is afforded, as a second attack 
does not occur often during the same epidemic. It is rea- 
sonable to believe that recent mild, as well as severe, attacks 
will confer immunity, as is observed in cases of smallpox, 
scarlet fever, yellow fever, etc. In smallpox, vaccination is 
a simple method of conferring immunity, 



CHAPTER XL. 



DISINFECTION AND ITS EFFECTS. 



Disinfection means the destruction of infectious material, 
and this can only be accomplished by the use of disinfectants, 
disinfectants must not be confounded with antiseptics and 
deodorants. A disinfectant kills both the disease=produc- 
ing and the putrefactive organisms, and, therefore, neces- 
sarily, answers the purpose of an antiseptic, and also, to a 
certain extent, of a deodorant, An antiseptic arrests putre^ 
faction or fermentation by the prevention of the growth of 
micro-organisms while it is present, but does not, of neces- 
sity, kill them; for this reason, it can not take the place of 
a disinfectant. Deodorants are used only for the destruc- 
tion of bad odors, not having any effect at all upon bacteria- 
It is true most of the disinfectants are deodorants — that is, 
they destroy odors as well as the bacteria that produce them. 

Strictly speaking, specific disinfection implies dealing with 
infection. In its popular and wider sense, however, it em- 
braces purification in all its applications. The burning of 
volatile substances, the libation of liquids, and the sprinkling 
of powdery compounds on a large scale, are but feeble or 
futile substitutes for physical or chemical means of destroy- 
ing infection. In the process of cleansing and purification, 
all stable and unstable substances, whether they be of or- 
ganic or inorganic character, are dealt with either by physi- 
cal or chemical means. Physical means should be applied to 
all movable material without regard to their preservation. 
Tliey should be disposed of, either by burial or fire, unless 
they can be disinfected thoroughly by such means as will be 
given hereinafter, depending always upon the proximity of 
dwellings, and other conditions* Under some circumstances 

501 



502 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

they might be deposited upon the surface at a distance from 
any residence, but this is not advisable. Objects that cannot 
be removed should be washed and scraped, and the resultant 
refuse .should be removed or destroyed by burning. 

There are other methods, in addition to the above, that 
should be adopted, in preference to the more temporary 
methods, as by the use of chemicals, usually resorted to for 
treating organic, decomposing matter. It is the process of 
chemical treatment of decomposable refuse that popularly 
and fallaciously passes under the name of disinfection. The 
usual habit of styling many substances disinfectants, which 
are not, has fostered this idea. 

Putrefaction is due to the presence and growth of bacteria 
in their beneficent work of resolving organic substances into 
their innocuous elements. Malodorous gases are given off 
during putrefaction, and deodorants, whether by breaking 
up the gases or overpowering the odor, or absorbing it, pro- 
duce little or no effect. The odors of decomposing sub- 
stances themselves are the tell=tales of filth, and overcoming 
them by the use of deodorants is a fallacious remedy. To 
prevent these odors, preservation against decomposition — 
thus preventing the odoriferous stage being reached — is ef- 
fected by the use of antiseptics. The application of antisep- 
tics, however, is limited to substances and places where re- 
moval or destruction, either temporary or permanent, can- 
not be accomplished. Moreover, antiseptics require care- 
ful and discriminate employment to be of real value in pre- 
venting the growth of micro=organisms in organic substances. 

Food is preserved by physical means, such as cold, ex- 
clusion or filtration of the air, and by chemical means, as 
smoking, salting, and the use of other chemical substances. 
Interest in the preservation of food, in this connection, only 
lies in the fact that it shows that preservatives, in their ef- 
fects on organic matter, are closely allied to antiseptics. 

The only antiseptics that should be used in the practice 
of disinfection, are those which, as germicides, not only pre- 



DISINFECTION AND ITS EFFECTS 503 

vent the growth of, but are directly fatal to, bacteria. In 
the treatment of organic matter, destruction of the germs, 
rather than the prevention of their growth, would be much 
the safer practice. Therefore, disinfectants should always 
be used instead of antiseptics. It should be remembered, 
however, that disinfectants, when used in a very diluted or 
weakened state, become, or only act as, antiseptics. 

In a more restricted and accurate sense, disinfection im- 
plies the destruction of infection produced by the specific 
micro=organisms of disease, as distinguished from pollution 
by the ordinary or non=speciflc micro=organisms. It must 
be admitted that our knowledge as yet scarcely enables us 
to draw a sharp line of demarkation between pathogenic 
and non=pathogenic organisms, especially in reference to 
the cause of septic diseases ; yet, in the recognized infectious 
diseases, whether the specific organisms producing them have 
been discovered or not, disinfection should be applied for 
the destruction of the specific infection. The only means of 
knowing positively that the specific infection in matter is 
destroyed absolutely, is by. subjecting some of the infected 
material to actual experiment by cultivation of known micro= 
organisms. This can be done properly only by the practical 
bacteriologist. 

Thus restricted to the destruction of the specific infection, 
the process of disinfection admits of the application of vari- 
ous measures by mechanical means and by physical and 
chemical agents. Some of the physical means in use are 
cleansing, exposure to light, burning, moist and dry heat, 
boiling in water, etc. Moist heat or steam is far more effec- 
tive than dry heat, as the distribution of the latter is too un- 
equal, and does not penetrate bulky articles. With many sub- 
stances, boiling in water is nuost efficacious. 

But few of the chemical agents, lauded as disinfectants", 
possess any real germicidal power. Some are more or less 
antiseptic, while a large number are merely deodorant, and 
many are more or less inert. 



504 CHAMPION TEAT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

The effects of a germicide depend upon the quantity in 
which it is used, and the length of time during which it is 
allowed to act. Even the best disinfectant may be used in 
such small quantities, or the material to be disinfected may 
dilute it to such an extent, that its action may be rendered 
nil, or at most only that of an antiseptic. This is what oc- 
curs very frequently in actual practice. 

The extensive and valuable experiments of Koch upon 
anthrax spores, with a large number of chemical agents in 
solution, showed that these spores were killed within one 
day's exposure only by chlorin, bromin (2 per cent.), iodin, 
chlorid of mercury (1 per cent.), permanganate of potash 
(5 per cent,), and osmic acid (1 per cent.) Pure oil of 
turpentine required five days' exposure; hydrochloric acid 
(2 per cent.), ten days; chlorid of iron (5 per cent.), six 
days; chlorid of lime (5 per cent.), five days; formic acid, 
four days. The latter class is entirely out of the question, as, 
under ordinary conditions, disinfection must be completed 
in minutes rather than hours. Osmic acid is not fit for 
practical use, and the excessive quantity of permanganate of 
potash that would be required, removes this agent from the 
list. There remain, therefore, of the first class, only bichlo- 
rid of mercury and the halogens, that can be used to ad- 
vantage in actual practice. 

Bichlorid of mercury in solution has been shown to be one 
of the most convenient and most powerful disinfectants. 
Koch demonstrated that, used in the proportion of 1 : 1,000,- 
01)0, the growth of anthrax bacilli was checked; while 1 : 333,= 
333 arrested the growth, and 1:1,000 killed the anthrax 
spores in ten minutes. The experiments of Klein were in 
the main confirmatory of those of Koch, but stronger solu- 
tions were required to produce the same results. Differ- 
ences in results, in experiments with disinfectants, due 
usually to varying conditions, render it difficult to estimate 
1 heir true value. 

The experiments of Koch with carbolic acid have lost that 
agent its hitherto high reputation as a disinfectant. He 



DISINFECTION AND ITS EFFECTS 505 

found that it required a 1 per cent, solution more than a 
day to kill anthrax bacilli, and a 5 per cent, solution twenty^ 
four hours to destroy the infection in tuberculous sputum. 

Iodin, bromin, and chlorin, known as the halogens, are used 
in the form of gases, in a similar manner, to nitrous and 
sulphurous acid gases. But the use of these agents, on ac- 
count of their destructive effects, have been practically dis- 
continued since the introduction of formaldehyde gas. 

Form aldehyde gas is now recognized as the best agent, in 
the form of gas, for the disinfection of rooms, their contents, 
clothing, etc. Its use is not limited to the gaseous form, as 
it combines with water and alcohol in any strength, in which 
liquid form it may be applied to many uses. 

Abbott says : 

"In the destruction of bacteria by means of chemical sub- 
stances, there occurs most probably a definite chemical re- 
action; that is to say, the character of both the bacteria and 
the agent employed in their destruction are lost in the pro- 
duction of a third body, the result of their combination. It 
is impossible to say with absolute certainty, as yet, that this 
is the case, but the evidence that is rapidly accruing from the 
more recent studies upon disinfectants and their mode of 
action, point strongly to the accuracy of this belief. This 
reaction, in which the typical structure of both bodies con- 
cerned is lost, takes place between the agent employed for 
disinfection and the protoplasma of bacteria. For exam- 
ple, in the reaction that is seen to take place between the 
salts of mercury and albuminous bodies, there results a third 
compound, which has neither the characteristics of mercury 
nor of albumin, but partakes of the peculiarities of both; 
it is a combination of albumin and mercury known by the 
indefinite term albuminate of mercury. Some such reac- 
tion as tli is occurs when the soluble salts of mercury are 
brought in contact with bacteria." 

Corrosive sublimate is less effective n« a germicide in alka- 
lin fluids, containing much albuminous substance than in 
watery solutions. In such fluids, precipitates of albuminates 



506 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

of mercury are formed, which are at first .soluble, so that a 
pari of the mercuric salt does not exert any action. If these 
albuminates <»I mercury are dissolved in an excess of blood or 
blood=serum, they become very effective. In alkalin solti- 
tions, such as blood, blood=seruni, pus, tissue=fluids, etc., 
the soluble compounds of mercury are converted into oxids 
or liydro=oxids. The soluble compounds can remain in solu- 
tion only when there are present sufficient quantities of cer- 
tain bodies which render solution possible. Bodies of this 
soil are especially the alkalin chlorids, and iodids, and, above 
all, sodium chlorid, and ammonium chlorid. A very simple 
way of preventing precipitation of mercury, then, is to add 
a suitable quantity of chlorid of sodium to the corrosive sub- 
limate. These compounds of mercury, which like the 
cyanids, are not precipitated with the alkalis, because they 
at once form double salts, require no addition of salt. These 
facts were recognized several decades ago, and were made 
use of in medicine, but had altogether fallen into oblivion, 
until Liebrich, and later Behring, again brought them to light. 
The double salts of mercuric chlorid and sodium chlorid are 
precipitated by the earthy alkalis, and not by the alkalin 
carbonates, so that the solution should be prepared with 
distilled or soft water. 

The experiments of Abbott, Geppert, and other bacteriolo- 
gists, have given a new impulse to the study of disinfectants, 
and have caused the modification of many previously formed 
ideas concerning the action of disinfectants. The fact has 
been emphasized especially that we must use a sufficiently 
strong disinfectant, and enough of it, to destroy the bacteria 
in the material to be disinfected. It is questionable whether 
material, such as sputa, excreta, or blood, containing patho- 
genic organisms, can be disinfected by means of corrosive 
sublimate, unless used in the presence of chlorid of am- 
monium or chlorid of sodium. If these are not present, the 
sublimate may be used up and rendered inactive as- a disin- 
fectant by the 1 presence 1 of albumin. We believe, however, 



DISINFECTION AND ITS EFFECTS 507 

that, if a strong enough solution of chlorid of mercury, con- 
taining a suitable quantity of chlorid of sodium or chlorid 
of ammonium, be used in sufficient quantity, in contact with 
the bacteria, for a long enough time, it will insure their 
destruction. 

DEODORANTS— DEODORIZERS. 

A deodorant is a substance or agent that destroys offensive 
and noxious or unhealthful odors. Odors that are offensive 
and noxious, which come from decaying matter, very fre- 
quently contain sulphur in some state of combination. 
Deodorants usually produce the effect for which they are 
used, by causing a chemical change in the bodies to which 
they are applied, but sometimes their action destroys or 
counteracts their volatility by absorbing or condensing 
odorous substances. Charcoal possesses this latter property, 
but indirectly may produce chemical changes, by bringing 
the odorous substances into contact with oxygen in a con- 
densed and active condition. 

Deodorants may be divided into volatile and nonvolatile 
classes. The action of volatile deodorants is exclusively 
chemical, being intended to act on bodies which are them- 
selves volatile. They admit of more generally useful ap- 
plication than those which are nonvolatile. The most im- 
portant members of this class are chlorin and its lower 
oxids; sulphurous acid, nitrous acid, and other oxids of 
nitrogen, ozone, and peroxid of hydrogen. 

Volatile deodorants are of two kinds; those that destroy 
or remove noxious smells, and those which merely cover one 
smell with another. In the selection and use, then, of vola- 
tile deodorants, it is necessary to distinguish between them. 
Carbonic acid, for instance, is of little use as a deodorant, 
while it is very valuable as a disinfectant. It acts as a 
deodorant by covering a weaker odor with its powerful odor, 
rendering it loss objectionable or imperceptible. On the 
other hand, chlorid of lime possesses a strong and charac- 



508 CHAMPION TEXT- BOOK ON EMBALMING 

teristic smell, and is capable of destroying other noxious 
odors, and is, therefore, an excellent deodorant. 

The chemical action, by which odors are destroyed, is 
principally one of oxidation, and, therefore, this class of 
deodorants are generally oxidizing agents. The natural 
deodorant contained in the atmosphere is ozone or active 
oxygen, which, no doubt, largely contributes to the destruc- 
tion of noxious vapors in the air. Volatile oils, which 
emanate from flowers and other parts of plants, in contact 
with atmospheric oxygen, produce peroxid of hydrogen, and 
this, as an oxidizing agent, possesses deodorizing, as well as 
disinfectant, properl ies. 

Charcoal, earth, lime, oxid of iron, sulphate of iron, ehlorid 
of zinc, nitrate of lead, and permanganate of potash, are 
non-volatile deodorants. These are very efficient, when 
brought into contact with noxious gases, which emanate 
from decaying matter, although they are less generally use- 
ful than they would lie otherwise on account of their non= 
volatile character. Charcoal owes much of its efficiency to 
the surface attraction and power of condensation, which it 
possesses as a deodorant, by virtue of which it brings noxious 
gases, such as sulphureted hydrogen, into contact with oxygen 
in a condensed and active state, so that they are burned up 
and resolved into innoxious compounds, or compounds less 
noxious than those from which they are produced. 

Earth and oxid of iron, which, like charcoal, are used in 
the solid or dry, or nearly dry state, absorb and combine 
with or promote the combination of noxious gases, forming 
innoxious products. Lime may be used either dry or in a 
liquid state, as milk of lime. The other substances named 
above are used in the form of a watery solution. 



CHAPTER XLI. 



ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS. 



All material containing the germs of infectious disease is 
infectious material, and it is disinfected by the application 
of agents which destroy the living disease=gerois or patho- 
genic bacteria that give it its infecting power. Such agents 
are called disinfectants. The use of the term disinfectant 
is extended to germicides in general, that is, to those which 
kill nonpathogenic, as well as those which destroy patho- 
genic, bacteria. All disinfectants are also antiseptics, for 
agents which destroy the vitality of the bacteria of putre- 
faction, arrest the putrefactive process. Thus these agents, 
in less amount than is required to completely destroy vital- 
ity, arrest growth and act as antiseptics; but not all an- 
tiseptics are germicides. 

ANTISEPTICS. 
The. following agents in various strengths act as antisep- 
tics, while in stronger solution they become effective disin- 
fectants and germicides. They are antiseptic in the follow- 
ing proportions: — 

Iodid of mercury, 1 : 40000. Alum, 1 : 222. 

Peroxid of hydrogen, 1 : 20000. Tannin, 1 : 20T. 

Bichlorid of mercury, 1 : 14300. Arsenious acid, 1 : 166. 

Osmic acid, 1:1666. Boric acid. 1:14.°,. 

Chlorin, 1 : 4000. Sulphate of strychnia, 1 : 143. 

Iodin, 1:4000. Arsenite of soda, 1:111. 

Hydrocyanic acid, 1 : 2500. Hydrate of chloral, 1 : 107. 

Bromin, 1 : 1666. Salicylate of soda, 1 : 100. 

Thymol, 1 : 1340. Sulphate of iron, 1 : 00. 

Sulphate of copper, 1:1111. Ohlorid of lime, 1 : 2."i. 

Salicylic acid 1 : 1000. Borate of soda, 1:14. 

Cyanid of potassium, 1 : 000. Alcohol, 1:10. 

Ammonia, 1 : 714. Ohlorid of ammonium, 1 : 0. 

Chlorid of zinc, 1 : 526. Arsenite of potash. 1 : 8. 

Carbolic acid, 1:333. Chlorid of sodium ("common salt), 1:6. 
Permanganate of potash, 1 : 285. 



510 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

DISINFECTANTS. 

The following is a list of some of the practical disinfectant 
agents, giving their germicidal values: — 

Carbonate of ammonia, in solution 1 : 77, is a disinfectant 
sufficiently strong to kill the cholera spirillum in five hours. 

Fluosilicate of ammonium, in a 2 per cent, solution, will 
kill anthrax spores in from fifteen to forts-five minutes. 

Chlorid of lime in solution, containing 25 per cent, of avail- 
able chlorin, is a very powerful germicidal agent and has 
great value as a practical disinfectant. It is effectual as a 
germicide when allowed to act for only a minute or two. 
It is very inexpensive, and can be used in large quantities 
at a very small cost. It can be procured in any drug=store, 
and should be used in solution of about six ounces to the 
gallon of water. 

Sulphate of copper, used in solution 1:3000, will kill the 
cholera spirillum in ten minutes. A solution 1 : 20 kills the 
typhoid bacillus in the same time. It is cheap, and can be 
used for disinfecting such material as waste, excreta, etc., 
but is very destructive to colors in fabrics, walls, etc. 

Sulphate of iron in solution has been recommended by 
some authors for the purpose of disinfecting excreta, cess= 
pools, etc., but its action is too weak for practical purposes. 

Protochlorid of manganese is a very valuable agent as an 
antiseptic and germicide for general disinfecting purposes. 
If should be used in proportion of 1 : 500 to 1 : 1000. 

Cyanid of mercury is one of the strongest disinfectants, 
is very poisonous, and will kill all bacteria and their spores 
in a very short time in solution of 1 : 1000 to 1 : 2000. 

Iodid of mercury, in a solution of 1 : 10000, has antiseptic 
value, and, in a stronger solution, will destroy all kinds of 
bacteria. 

Arsenite of potassium is not a disinfectant of much value; 
but, when used in strong solution for injecting purposes, it 
will preserve and harden tissue, and has been used from time 



ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS 511 

to time in combination with other chemicals in the manu- 
facture of embalming fluids. 

Bichromate of potash is antiseptic in the proportion of 
1 : 909, and, in a stronger solution, is a disinfectant and will 
kill bacteria and spores of all kinds. 

Bromid of potassium, in a 1 per cent, solution, will destroy 
the bacilli of typhoid fever and the cholera spirilla in five 
hours. 

Chlorid of mercury (mercuric chlorid or corrosive sub- 
limate) is one of the strongest disinfectants and can be used 
in many ways. In simple solution, it is less effective as a 
germicide, in all alkalin fluids containing much albuminous 
substance, than iu watery fluids. In such fluids, precipi- 
tates of albuminates of mercury are formed, wmich render 
the mercuric salt more or less inert ; but the precipitated al- 
buminate of mercury in due time will be redissolved, if an ex- 
cess of albumin is present, when it will have its usual germi- 
cidal effect upon the material which is to be disinfected. To 
make it positively effective in albuminous substance, sodium 
or potassium chlorid should be added in the proportion of 
five parts of either of the latter, to one part of the sublimate 
iu solution. The sodium or potassium will prevent the 
precipitation above mentioned ; it will also prevent the action 
nf light from producing alterations in the mercuric chlorid. 
Chlorid of mercury should be used in solution 1:500 or 
1:1000 

Calcium hydrate, in the form of milk of lime (freshly 
slaked lime, 1 part; water, 4 parts), applied by white=wash- 
ing walls of apartments, out=houses, pavements, walks, etc., 
is ;i very valuable disinfectant agent, but its more practical 
use is its application for the disinfection of excreta, espe- 
cially that from typhoid and cholera patients. It should be 
mixed intimately with the discharges, until the mixture 
gives a strong alkalin reaction, using a1 least one quarl to 
each stool. In this manner all excreta may be rendered 
perfectly harmless. 



512 CHAMP f()X TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Carbolic acid, when used in a 5 to 10 per cent, solution, 
is very effective as a germicidal agent, but its use is limited 
iu general practice on account of its somewhat disagreeable 
odor and its irritating effect, when coining in contact with 
the skin of those who handle it. Crude carbolic acid, to 
which has been added an equal volume of concentrated sul- 
phuric acid, is very effective in the disinfection of excreta, 
etc. It should be kept artificially cold wheu being mixed. 

Nitrate of silver ma}" be placed next to mercuric chlorid 
as an efficient germicide, and it is claimed by some to be 
even superior to that salt in albuminous fluids. It cannot 
be used upon fabrics, or even in embalming fluids, on ac- 
count of its peculiar staining qualities. 

Chlorid of zinc is a disinfectant in strong solutions, but 
will prevent the growth of bacteria in about 1 : 200 or 1 : 300. 
Its principal use is in the manufacture of embalming fluids, 
(m account of its great hardening qualities. 

Sulphate of zinc, in dry powder, is antiseptic, but its prin- 
cipal use is that of drying and hardening soft decomposing 
animal matter. It is used as the base of all dessieating or 
hardening compounds. 

The Committee on Disinfectants of the American Public 
Heaith Association made a very exhaustive investigation with 
reference to the germicidal value of various agents. Its re- 
port embodied some important conclusions, the substance of 
which is included in the following: — 

The most useful agents for the destruction of spore=con- 
raining infections material are a complete destruction by 
fire; exposure to steam under pressure 221° F. ; boiling water 
for half an hour to an hour the application of chlorid of lime 
6 ounces to the gallon ; mercuric chlorid solution 1: 500. 

For the destruction of infectious material which does not 
contain spores: Complete destruction by burning (fire) ; boil- 
ing in water for ten minutes; exposure to dry heat 230° F. ; 



ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS 513 

for two hours; the application of a 2 per cent, solution 
of chloric! of lime ; a 10 per cent, solution of chlorinated soda ; 
bichlorid of mercury 1 : 2000 ; a 5 per cent, solution of car- 
bolic acid; a 5 per cent, solution of sulphate of copper; a 
10 x^er cent, solution of chlorid of zinc; sulphur dioxid (sul- 
phur fumes) exposure for twelve hours in an air=tight com- 
partment, moisture being present. 

We would add to the above formaldehyde gas, which can 
be used in place of moist or dry heat, it being one of the 
strongest germicides, and having no deleterious effects upon 
any fabric or surface with which it comes in contact. The 
best methods for using sulphur dioxid and formaldehyde gas 
will be given in the following chapter. 

The best agents for disinfecting excreta from the body, 
are: chlorid of lime in a 1 per cent, solution, and the com- 
bination of crude carbolic acid and concentrated sulphuric 
acid, as given above. 

The best disinfectant for privy vaults is chlorid of lime in 
powder or a 4 per cent, solution. 

Soiled underclothing, bed linen, and other washable ma- 
terial, if worn out or of little value, should be destroyed by 
fire ; if not worn out, or if of value, they should be boiled for 
at least a half hour or more. Bed clothing, wearing ap- 
parel, such as woolens and silks, and other fabrics, which 
would be injured by immersion in water, should be exposed 
with moisture to formaldehyde gas in an air=tight compart- 
ment. The mattresses and blankets, soiled by the discharges 
of the sick, should be destroyed by fire, or after opening up, 
should be exposed to formaldehyde gas. Rooms with their 
contents, articles of furniture, etc., may be completely dis- 
infected by subjecting them to the fumes of sulphur or 
formaldehyde gas in the manner described in the following 
chanter. 

The hands; and general surfaces of the bodv of those coin- 
ing in contact with the sick or dead, should be washed with 



514 CHAMP/OX TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

a solution of chlorinated soda, 1:10, carbolic acid, 1:50, or 
mercuric chlorid, 1 : 1000. 

Permanganate of potash is an antiseptic, and, when com- 
bined with oxalic acid, and used in warm solution, makes an 
excellent wash for the hands, as it has no irritating proper- 
ties. The hands should first be washed with a strong soap, 
the finger nails cleansed, and then washed with the solu- 
tion. 

To prevent bacteria from passing out from the dead body 
that has not been sterilized, it should be enveloped in a sheet 
saturated with chlorid of lime in 4 per cent, solution, or 
mercuric chlorid 1:500, or carbolic acid in 5 per cent, solu- 
tion. 

Only some of the most important disinfectants have been 
mentioned, and their strength and application given, which, 
no doubt, will be changed from time to time, as a result of 
the numerous investigations that arc 1 being made by the 
students and practitioners of the science of sanitation. 



CHAPTER XLII. 



DISINFECTION OF ROOMS AND THEIR CONTENTS. 



The recent methods practiced for the disinfection of rooms 
and their contents, on account of the destructive character 
of the agents usualh T employed, have been unpopular with 
the public for a long time, and needed reform before this. 
These methods have caused the concealment of many cases 
of infectious diseases. They were an incentive also for the 
removal of all manner of valuable furniture before being dis- 
infected, where disinfection was ordered, greatly increasing 
the chances of dissemination of the disease. The persons 
whose business it was to attend to public disinfection, fre- 
quently found rooms almost empty when they were 
called upon to do their work, the furniture and other valu- 
able articles having been removed to other rooms, or even 
from the house, to prevent their destruction, in part at least, 
by the applications of the disinfectants that were used for 
the purpose of cleansing. This was not due alone to the 
injurious effect of the chemicals, but to a great extent to 
the carelessness of the disinfectors themselves. 

The mechanical methods employed were not distinguisha- 
ble by the general public from ordinary cleansing, which was 
much less harmful. The question of results, however, was 
much more important. Were the majority of the disease 
germs actually destroyed by the methods in use? In a 
partial sense only, could an affirmative answer be given. It 
is true, articles placed in a steam=oven were purified, but the 
rooms themselves were not disinfected properly. Cracks and 
corners and ont=of=:way places were left unclean, while it was 
possible to cleanse large surfaces and treat them in such a 
manner that the disease germs were destroyed. But even then 



516 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

the action of the strongest disinfectants employed, usually 
did not last long enough to sterilize the surfaces. Even 
corrosive sublimate 1:1000 solution requires about thirty 
minutes of undisturbed action to destroy with certainty 
many of the various germs. Of course, it could not be ad- 
mitted thai they were inefficient, because we had nothing 
better; it would have caused such attacks upon the utility 
of disinfection, that it would have resulted in disinfection 
being dispensed with entirely 

We cannot expect, under any method, to destroy all germs 
within the siek=room. Some will remain in out=of=way cor- 
ners and in localities outside of the sick=room, or on the 
clothing or person of those who have come into contact with 
the patient. We can only expect to destroy the main masses 
of disease=producing organisms. Flugge says: "When we 
can destroy over 90 per cent, of disease germs present in a 
room, the dangers of infection become almost nothing, and 
we can be satisfied with the disinfection. This cannot, of 
course, be done with our previous methods, which does not, 
however, discredit them as partially successful and the best 
that could be employed. We are ready to give them up as 
the search for a more suitable method is indubitably suc- 
cessful. 

That which constitutes one of the chief means for the pre- 
vention of the dreaded disease, is a thorough disinfection of 
the room and contents which are infected with the disease^ 
producing organisms. The results of the methods which 
aim to accomplish this, must stand the test of a thorough 
laboratory trial. A trial or test of this kind may be more 
severe than those made in actual practice, but yet it con- 
stitutes the only safe guide of what a given agent is capable 
of doing. How much of the disinfectant is t<» be used, the 
length of time it is to act, the influence of the presence or 
absence of moisture, or how the contents of the room are to 
be arranged in order to secure disinfection, can alone be de- 
cided by the laboratory experiment. To pile bedding and 



DISINFECTION OF BOOMS AND THEIR CONTENTS 517 

clothing in heaps upon the floor, and burn three or more 
pounds of sulphur, leaving the room closed for several hours, 
and then assume that everything is done that can be done, 
is not sufficient, The disinfection of a room is a very deli- 
cate experiment and the various conditions which are neces- 
sary to success should be well understood before being put 
into practice. The various organisms are not acted upon 
by chemical disinfectants in the same manner always, un- 
less their environments aud surroundings are exactly the 
same. Then, too, while under some conditions, the most 
resistent are destroyed easily, under other conditions they 
cannot be destroyed at all. Thus, while the anthrax spores 
in water suspension will be destroyed by corrosive sublimate 
very readily, if placed in a highly albuminous fluid, such as 
the blood, they may not be affected at all. 

These conditions are equally true for gaseous disinfectants. 
The very best gaseous disinfectant may fail simply because 
too much is expected of it. A gaseous disinfectant is not 
as penetrating as is supposed by some. The most that we 
can expect from It is the destruction of the bacteria on the 
surface; even if it is only a surface disinfectant it will ac- 
complish all fhat is necessary, if properly applied. We can 
not expect gas to penetrate through several mattresses or 
large bundles of blankets; and it is not necessary for it to 
do so, for it is possible to separate the blankets and hang 
them upon a line, and open up mattresses and allow the 
gas to come in direct contact with the germs that may be 
contained therein, so as to destroy them. 

Fumigation by the use of sulphur has been practiced for 
years, but its efficiency has been doubted largely, probably 
because too much was expected from it. Because sulphur 
fumes do not kill the anthrax spores and other resisting or- 
ganisms, there is no good reason for us to conclude, at once, 
that it will fail to destroy the infection of scarlet fever, 
inensles, or smallpox, for the simple reason that we do not 
know anything about Hie germs of the latter diseases. The 



518 (HAM PI OX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

organisms that produce these diseases possibly may be 
destroyed as easily as those of cholera, diphtheria, and black 
plague. If that be the ease, then the use of sulphur fumes 
;is a disinfectant iu those diseases would be perfectly satis- 
factory, as far as the destruction of these germs is con- 
cerned. There are other reasons why formaldehyde or some 
other gas would be better, but we do know, that, if fumiga- 
tion by sulphur is properly carried out, it will prevent the 
dissemination or spread of certain of the infectious diseases. 

Recently formaldehyde gas has attracted much attention 
as a disinfectant. A number of different forms of apparatus 
have been devised for its generation and employment. Some 
of these are worthless, or at least unreliable, while others 
can be depended upon at all times. 

To disinfect a room with gases, it is necessary to make it 
as nearly air-tight as possible. The walls and windows 
should be examined carefully and all cracks closed. Cracks 
in the walls should be closed with plaster of Paris or putty; 
those between the wash-boards and floors should be caulked 
with muslin previous!}' moistened with a 1:500 solution of 
mercuric chlorid ; also cracks around the windows and doors 
I except the one for exit) should be caulked in the same man- 
ner. Open grates, air=chambers, registers, and all other 
openings, should be closed. The throats of chimneys can 
be closed with bundles of old clothes. The cracks around 
the door for exit can be closed on the outside. 

SULPHUR FUMES (SULPHUR DIOXID). 

If the room is to be fumigated by the use of sulphur it 
will require from three to six pounds to be burned for each 
1000 cubic feet of space. To make it effective it will be neces- 
sary to moisten the surface of the walls, fabrics, furniture, 
and other material contained therein. If sulphur is burned 
and everything allowed to remain dry, its destructiveness 
will be almost nil, but its efficiency as a disinfectant will 
be verv limited. Moisture renders it verv effective in the 



DISINFECTION OF ROOMS AND THEIR CONTENTS 519 

destruction of the germs, but at the same time it increases its 
destructive qualities to fabrics, polished metals, and sur- 
faces, to such a degree that it is almost impossible to use it 
for the purpose of disinfecting rooms. Again, there are 
certain bacteria, especially their spores, that it will not 
destroy, whether moisture is present or not. 

Sulphur fumes are very destructive to the organisms that 
produce scarlatina, diphtheria, black plague, etc., and will 
accomplish as much as any other method of disinfection. 
The sulphur should be placed in an iron vessel in the center 
of the room. A little alcohol should be added to aid its com- 
bustion. Sulphur is somewhat dangerous on account of 
Are; sometimes, while burning, some of the material may be 
thrown out on to the floor in sufficient quantity to set fire 
to the building. To prevent this a large pan with a little 
water in the bottom should be first placed on the floor or 
table and the iron vessel containing the sulphur placed 
therein. 

The door of exit should then be closed, and the cracks and 
keyhole filled from the outside with strips of muslin soaked 
in bichlorid solution, or by pasting paper over them. The 
room should remain closed for at least twelve hours. 

Prior to igniting the sulphur, the walls and contents of the 
room should be moistened by spraying with water; or steam 
may be produced in the room by an apparatus for that pur- 
pose. Spraying with water is more simple and is usually ef- 
ficient. At the end of twelve hours the windows of the room 
should be raised and air admitted very freely, when the sul- 
phur fumes will soon disappear. 

By the burning of sulphur, sulphurous acid is evolved, 
which attacks organic matter, on account of its affinity for 
oxygen, with which forms sulphuric acid, to which fact is 
really due the greater part of its destructive effect. As 
stated before, when moisture is present, the burning of sul- 
phur is very effective, but metal surfaces are attacked and 
fabrics are destroyed thereby, which makes it very objection- 



520 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

able. This destructibility may be obviated to a very gTeat 
degree, as to metal surfaces, by covering them with fresh 
lard. As the. lard cannot be applied in this manner to 
fabrics, those with delicate colors should be removed and 
subjected to dry heat. 

FORMALDEHYDE GAS. 

Disinfection by the use of formaldehyde gas is much more 
satisfactory. By its use nothing is destroyed; it has no ef- 
fect whatever upon metals or fabrics, wall=paper, or any- 
thing that may be contained in the room, and its power of 
destroying bacteria is less limited than that of sulphur. It 
will destroy all bacteria and their spores, even the most tena- 
cious, if they are in a moist state. If moisture is not used with 
formaldehyde gas in sufficient quantity to dampen the dust, 
surfaces of walls, fabrics, and other contents that contain 
bacteria, it will not be nearly so efficacious as if moisture is 
present. 

As stated above, various methods have been invented for 
its production. The so=called formaldehyde gas lamps, which 
evolve the gas from wood=alcohol, are failures, especially 
on account of the small amount of gas produced by them, 
but there are oilier good reasons that we will not enumerate 
which would be sufficient to relegate them to the stores 
houses for plunder. 

The only efficient methods that as yet have been intro- 
duced, that are; worthy of consideration, are those known as 
the Schering method for the regeneration of formaldehyde 
gas from the heating of paraform pastiles, and the distilla- 
tion of formaldehyde gas from formalin. Paraform (poly- 
merized formalin) results from the simple evaporation or 
heating of formalin and appears as a white, indistinctly 
crystalline powder, which is stable under ordinary condi- 
tions, and is made into tablets and sold in that form for 
disinfection. These tablets are placed in a lain]) made for 
the purpose and volatilized by heat. They an 1 also soluble 
in hot water or in heated' formalin. When dissolved in hot 
water they possess the characteristics of ordinary formalin, 



DISINFECTION OF ROOMS AND THEIR CONTENTS 521 

while, if placed in formalin and boiled for a short time, they 
will increase greatly the quantity of gas that is produced in a 
given time in formalin distillation. 

Formaldehyde gas was discovered in 1867, by Von Hoff- 
man. He produced it by passing the vapor of methyl alco- 
hol mixed with air over platinum powder, heated to redness. 
It is now produced by the action of silent electric charges on 
a mixture of hydrogen and carbonic dioxid. Until 1888 the 
germicidal properties of formaldehyde gas were unknown. 
They were discovered in that year by Leow. Since that 
time its great efficiency as a disinfectant has been generally 
recognized. It is pronounced far superior to any other 
general disinfectant in use. 

Formaldehyde gas has the chemical property of uniting 
with sulphureted or nitrogenous products of decayed fermen- 
tation and decomposition, forming true chemical compounds, 
which are odorous and sterile. It is from this property of 
combining chemically with the above substances that 
formaldehyde derives its germicidal power. Bacteria are 
not only albuminoid in character, but their food is mainly 
albuminoid, and when formaldehyde is present, it combines 
with both, thus destroying the bacteria as well as their food. 

Allan says : — 

"In this fact lies the surpassing value of formaldehyde 
over such disinfectants as corrosive sublimate, carbolic acid, 
lyeol, etc., for albuminous matter is at once coagulated by 
contact with these agents and resulting antisepsis is more 
or less superficial; while the food solution, being possessed 
with the chemical affinity for albuminoids, thoroughly im- 
pregnates and, consequently, sterilizes all such substances 
witli which it comes in contact. Partly as a natural 
sequence, to this property is developed the power of harden- 
ing and preserving animal tissue, converting soft tissue to 
a hard, leathery mass, depending upon the strength of the 
solution and its time of action. This effect is due, as before 
stated, to its penetrating action, whereby it readily reunites 
witli the albuminoid substance of the protoplasma of tin 1 
cells and checks all the putrefactive changes permanently, 
in dead tissue." 



522 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMUALM1XG 

It must be remembered, as stated above, that its power of 
hardening tissues and reducing them to a leathery mass, is 
dependent upon the strength of the solution and its time of 
action. When formaldehyde gas is injected into the body 
by the embalmer, for preserving- and sterilizing purposes, if 
the tissues are dry, or have an amount of watery constit- 
uents in the body equal to or less than the normal, the ten- 
dency of a strong solution will be to hardeoi tlie tissues before 
a sufficient amount can be injected to reach the capillaries in 
all parts of the body. The tissues, when thus hardened, wilt 
prevent the penetration of the gas, which, no doubt, occurs 
very frequently. The results of the injection of strong solu- 
tions of formaldehyde undoubtedly indicate this, as many 
bodies are not preserved in all their parts, as putrefaction 
takes place here and there in some bodies, while in others, de- 
composition follows as readily as if no disinfectant had been 
injected. For formaldehyde to penetrate, it must be diluted 
greatly with water when injected into what we commonly call 
a dry subject. But, if the case be one of dropsy formalde- 
hyde, having a great affinity for water, will penetrate every 
part of the body readily, if a sufficient quantity of the solu- 
tion is used. The greatest objection to formaldehyde, when 
used in an embalming fluid, is its effect upon the tissues, 
especially its tendency to produce an unnatural bluish or 
grayish color in the exposed surfaces of the body. 

Formaldehyde is non=poisonous in any strength. Even 
paraform, which contains 100 per cent, of formaldehyde, if 
accidently swallowed, is perfectly harmless, because, of its 
very slow conversion into the gaseous state at the tempera- 
ture of the body. It does not act injuriously upon the 
alimentary canal. The effect upon the operator is not per- 
manently deleterious. It produces a congestion of the mucous 
membranes of the eyes, mouth, nose, and fauces, when it 
comes in contact with them, which, however, will soon 
pass off, leaving no permanent disturbance. 



DISINFECTION OF ROOMS AND THEIR CONTENTS 523 

TO DISINFECT WITH SCHERING'S PASTILLES. 

Tire room should be closed and made as nearly air=tight as 
possible, in the manner directed above. The disinfector, 
which consists of a container, in which to place the pastilles, 
and a lamp with a reservoir, is very simple indeed. The 
disinfector should be. placed on an uncovered table, the floor, 
or other firm support, in the center of the room to be dis- 
infected. In addition to closing and rendering the room 
air-tight, the doors of cupboards and closets and all drawers 
should be opened wide, and all bedding and linen should be 
spread out or hung up. The container of the disinfector is 
now filled with a greater or less number of pastilles, that 
is about two or two and one=half pastilles to each cubic 
meter (35 cubic feet) of space, or 60 to 75 to each 1,000 cubic 
feet of space. To be absolutely certain, two and one=half 
pastilles should be used for every 35 cubic feet. The latter 
is sufficient to kill the most resisting micro=organisms, in- 
cluding the anthrax spores. 

Tire reservoir of the lamp is then filled three=.fourths full 
of alcohol, about twelve fluid ounces; or, if wood=alcohol is. 
used, it should only be about half full. The wick should b& 
even with the level of the tubes, or, at all events, should not 
project more than about one=tweIfth of an inch above them, 
so that the flames will not be too high and the apparatus 
not get too hot. For complete disinfection of larger rooms 
and entire dwellings, two or more disinfectors should be 
employed. After all the wicks are lighted, the room should be 
left and the door tightly closed, and caulked. If the formalin 
vapor, which is absolutely innocuous to both men and ani- 
mals, becomes perceptible in the neighboring rooms, then 
their windows should be opened. After twelve to twenty= 
four hours, the windows of the disinfected room should be 
opened, and allowed to remain so for some time, when the 
formalin odor will disappear entirely. Sixty grams para- 
form pastilles per 1,000 cubic feet of space, are sufficient 
to destroy, within twenty hours, all organisms, regardless of 



524 CHAM PI ()X TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

whether they arc present as spores or vegetating forms, 
provided they arc moist. The walls and floor of the room, 
and whatever articles are present, previously spread out as 
much as possible, should be sprayed with water before ex- 
posing to the formalin vapors. 

There is but one objection to the above process of disin- 
fecting rooms, and that is the expense. The expense of 
polymerization, which gives rise to paraform, is unnecessary, 
as formaldehyde gas can be distilled from formalin without 
any trouble or extra expense. 

FORMALIN DISTILLATION. 

Formalin is a saturated aqueous solution of formaldehyde 
gas, containing 40 per cent. It occurs as a neutral, color- 
less, volatile liquid of a pungent odor and sharp taste, missi- 
ble in every proportion with water or alcohol. 

Novy says: "The fear of polymerization of formalin on 
boiling, is not well grounded. Certain it is that formalin 
can be distilled from its aqueous solution without polymeri- 
zation, and that the results obtained are every way equal to 
those obtained with paraform, and are decidedly superior 
to the so-called formalin lamps." 

For the distillation of formaldehyde gas from formalin, an 
apparatus similar to the one shown and described in the ac- 
companying cut, should be used. 

The room should be prepared as directed above; bedsteads 
and other furniture should be moved away from the walls, 
and the doors of cupboards and all drawers opened wide; 
toys, books, etc., should be hung or stood up in such a man- 
ner as to give the gas every access to them. A clothes-horse 
or wash=line should be put in place; blankets, spreads, rugs, 
and clothes should be hung over it, well separated, and fully 
unfolded. Mattresses should be hung up by means of cords 
that have been saturated in sublimate solution 1:500. All 
(doilies, coats, shirts ithe latter with sticks passed through 
the arm, coat=collars turned up and pockets turned inside 



DISINFECTION OF ROOMS AND THEIR CONTENTS 525 



NOVY'S FORMALDEHYDE 
GAS GENERATOR 

This apparatus consists es- 
sentially of two parts, as 
follows: 

First, a copper container, 
having a capacity of about 
two liters (two quarts) ; a 
funnel tube extends from 
the top into the exterior of 
the container to within one- 
sixteenth of an inch of the 
bottom; it is eleven inches 
in length and five-sixteenths 
of an inch in diameter. An 
inclined tube, about fifteen 
inches in length and five- 
sixteenths of an inch in di- 
ameter, screws into the 
dome alongside the funnel. 
This is connected by a short 
piece of rubber tubing to 
another tube about four in- 
ches in length, which read- 
ily passes through an ordi- 
nary keyhole. The funnel 
tube serves the double pur- 
pose of introducing the for- 
malin solution and to in- 
dicate the completion of 
distillation, as the formalin 
vapors and steam will is- 
sue from the tube, when 
the liquid in the container 
has evaporated down to the 
level of the bottom of the 
funnel tube. 

Second, a large, brass, 
central-draft, kerosene lamp, 
placed in a tripod of the 
same metal, upon which 
rests the container. 




Novy's Formaldehyde Gas Generator. 



SIN'* CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

out ) should be hung on the clothes=line or horse 1 . The walls, 
floors, carpets, and all other contents of the room, should be 
sprayed with water, sufficient to dampen them. Then the 
door of exit should he closed, and the cracks sealed with 
strips of muslin or putty, and the tube of the distilling ap- 
paratus inserted in the keyhole. 

To disinfect a room that contains 1000 cu. ft. of space, 150 
c. c. (5 oz.) of formalin should he poured into the appara- 
tus. A Bunsen burner, or any other strong flame, should 
he placed underneath it to boil the contents as rapidly 
as possible. The ebullition should be sufficient to 
distill that amount of formalin in from ten to fifteen 
minutes, as it is necessary to generate the gas as rapidly as 
possible to secure the very best effect. If the room has more 
space, there should be a correspondingly increased amount 
of formalin added to the generator through the funnel. This 
should be added slowly so as not to cool the boiling contents 
too rapidly. The room should then be left closed for at 
least twelve hours. Then the doors and windows should be 
opened ami the apartment ventilated thoroughly. The pun- 
gent ordor of formalin is quite tenacious and will remain, 
ordinarily, for a considerable length of time. Small dishes 
of ammonium placed in various parts of the room will soon 
obliterate the remaining evidences of the use of formaldehyde 
gas. 

At the close of a distillation it happens frequently that the 
formalin vapor present in the container, condenses and poly- 
merizes, producing a solid plug of paraform in the end of 
the funnel of the tube through which the gas escapes. This 
being the case, before the apparatus is used again, it should 
be examined carefully, and, if the tubes are found closed, they 
should be opened with a wire, or by gently heating, which 
hitler will readily volatilize the paraform. If polymeriza- 
tion should take place, a little borax can be added, which 



DISINFECTION OF ROOMS AND THEIR CONTENTS 527 

will aid in redissolving the paraform and prevent further 
polymerization. 

As will be seen from the illustration and description, the 
distilling apparatus is simplicity itself. Any one can use it. 
Its great advantages are that one apparatus is all that is 
needed, it matters not how large, or how many rooms are to 
be disinfected. Also, that it can be used for almost any 
number of disinfections in the course of a day. The time 
required for the distillation of sufficient formaldehyde for 
an ordinary room will not be more than twenty or thirty 
minutes. Being very light and small, the apparatus is easi- 
ly transferred from one point to another. It also is under 
the eye of the operator on the outside of the room during 
the distillation, so there is no danger of fire or explosion. 
The fuel and formalin are comparatively inexpensive. 

Formaldehyde gas, whether procured from the volitization 
of paraform pastilles, or distilled from formalin, is un- 
doubtedly the most convenient and most satisfactory disin- 
fectant for rooms and their contents that is known. Its 
ultimate effects upon the bacteria in many diseases are no 
more certain than that of sulphur, but in the use of sulphur 
the destruction of material, witli which it comes in contact, 
is so great that its use cannot be recommended. 



CHAPTER XLIII. 



TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES. 



On the 18th and 19th of August, 1897, the National Con- 
ferenee of the State Boards of Health, was held at Nashville, 
Tenn. A set of Rules for the Transportation of the Dead was 
reported by a committee, which had conferred with represen- 
tatives of the Baggage Agents' and Funeral Directors' Asso- 
ciations at Cleveland, Ohio, in June of the same year. It was 
taken up and discussed, section by section, and a few slight 
verbal amendments made. As the subject had been thor- 
oughly studied and discussed by the members who repre- 
sented the different bodies at Cleveland, the Conference 
seemed to be satisfied. After being adopted by the Confer- 
ence of Health Boards, it remained for the General Baggage 
Agents' Association to take final action, which was done at 
the meeting of their association in Denver, during the follow- 
ing October. The following resolutions were adopted by the 
latter association in support of the Shipping Utiles: 

Resolved, That the rules for the transportation of dead 
bodies, as recommended by the joint conference of Health 
Officers, Funeral Directors, and General Baggage Agents, at 
Cleveland, Ohio, June 9, 1897, and corrected and approved by 
the National Conference of the State Boards of Health at 
Nashville, Tenn., August 19, 1897, be approved by this asso- 
ciation, and that they be put into effect in every State and 
province, so soon as the necessary legislation is obtained or 
State or province supervision and licensing of embalmers and 
the other essential conditions for their enforcement can be 
arranged for. That members of the association co-operate 
with the State and Provincial Boards of Health in the several 
States and provinces and assist in obtaining the necessary leg- 
islation to enable the people to transport their dead in the 
manner and under the safeguards proposed. 

52S 



TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES 529 

Resolved, That the secretary print 1,000 copies of the rules 
as approved, with sample of the transit permit suggested, and 
that copies be sent to the State and Provincial Health Boards 
and Health Officers of the larger cities and the officials of the 
principal railway and steamboat lines. 

Members of the association were appointed to confer with 
State and Provincial Health Officers and ascertain what 
measures were necessary in such States and provinces to 
give effect to the rules as approved. 

THE SHIPPING RULES. 

The following are the rules as adopted, with certain modi- 
fications, in 1904 : 

Rule 1. — The transportation of bodies dead of smallpox or 
bubonic plague from one State, Territory, district, or prov- 
ince to another, is absolutely prohibited. 

Rule 2.— The transportation of bodies dead of Asiatic chol- 
era, yellow fever, typhoid fever, diphtheria (membranous 
croup), scarlet fever (scarlatina, scarlet rash), erysipelas, 
glanders, puerperal fever, anthrax or leprosy, shall not be ac- 
cepted for transportation unless prepared for shipment by 
being thoroughly disinfected by (a) arterial and cavity injec- 
tion with an approved disinfecting fluid; (b) disinfection 
and stopping of all orifices with absorbent, cotton, and (c) 
washing the body with the disinfectant, all of which must be 
done by an embalmer holding a certificate as such, issued by 
the slate or provincial board of health, or other state or pro- 
vincial authority provided for by law. After being disin- 
fected as above, such body shall be enveloped in a layer of dry 
cotton, not less than one inch thick, completely wrapped in a 
sheet, securely fastened, and encased in an air-tight zinc, tin, 
copper, or lead=lined coffin or iron casket, all joints and seams 
hermetically sealed, and all enclosed in a strong, tight, 
wooden box. Or the body being prepared for shipment by 
disinfecting and wrapping as above, may be placed in a strong 
coffin or casket, and said coffin or casket encased in an air= 



530 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

tight zinc, copper, or tin=lined box, all joints and seams her- 
metically soldered. 

Rule ■>. — The bodies of those dead from any cause not 
stated in Rule 2 may be received for transportation when en- 
cased in a sound coffin or casket and enclosed in a strong out- 
side wooden box, provided they can reach their destination 
within thirty hours from the time of death. If the body can- 
not reach its destination within thirty hours from the time of 
death, it must be prepared for shipment by arterial and cav- 
ity injection with an approved disinfecting fluid, washing the 
exterior of the body with the same, and enveloping the entire 
body with a layer of dry cotton not less than one inch thick, 
and all wrapped in a sheet securely fastened, and encased in 
an air=tight metallic coffin or casket or an air=tight metal= 
lined box. But when the body has been prepared for ship- 
ment by being thoroughly disinfected by a licensed embalmer, 
as defined and directed in Rule 2, the air-tight sealing and 
bandaging with cotton may be dispensed with. 

Rule '/. — In the shipment of bodies dead from any disease 
named in Rule 2, such body must not be accompanied by per- 
sons or articles which have been exposed to the infection of 
the disease, unless certified by the health officer as having 
been properly disinfected. 

Before selling tickets, agents should carefully examine the 
transit permit and note the name of the passenger in charge, 
and of any others proposing to accompany the body, and see 
that all necessary precautions have been taken to prevent the 
spread of the disease. The transit permit in such cases shall 
specifically state who is authorized by the health authorities 
to accompany the remains. In all cases where bodies are for- 
warded under Rub 1 2, notice must be sent by telegraph by the 
shipping embalmer to the health officer, or, when there is no 
health officer, to other competent authority at destination, 
advising the date and train on which the body may be ex- 
pected. 



TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES 531 

Rule 5. — Every dead body must be accompanied by a per- 
son in charge, who must be provided with a passage ticket 
and also present a full first=class ticket marked "Corpse" 
for the transportation of the body, and transit permit show- 
ing physician's or coroner's certificate, name of deceased, 
date and hour of death, age, place of death, cause of death, 
and all other items of the standard certificate of death rec- 
commended by the American Public Health Association and 
adopted by the United States Census Bureau, as far as ob- 
tainable, including health officer's or registrar's permit for 
removal, whether a communicable or none-communicable dis- 
ease, the point to which the body is to be shipped, and, when 
death is caused by any of the diseases specified in Rule 2, the 
names of those authorized by the health authorities to ac- 
company the body. Also the undertaker's certificate as to 
how the body has been prepared for shipment. The transit 
permit must be made in duplicate, and the signature of 
physician or coroner, health officer, and undertaker must be 
on both the original and duplicate copies. The undertaker's 
or registrar's certificate and paster of the original shall be 
detached from the transit permit and securely fastened on 
the end of the coffin box. All coffin boxes must be provided 
with at least four handles. The plrysician's certificate aud 
transit permit shall be handed to the passenger in charge of 
the corpse. The whole duplicate copy shall be sent to the 
official in charge of the baggage department of the initial line, 
and by him to the secretary of the state or provincial board 
of health of the state or province from which shipment is 
made. 

Rule 6. — When bodies are shipped by express, a transit 
permit, as described in Rule 5, must be made out in dupli- 
cate. The undertaker's certificate and paster of the origi- 
nal shall be detached from the transit permit and securely 
fastened on the coffin box. The physician's certificate and 
transit permit shall be attached to and accompany the ex- 
press way=bil] covering the remains, and be delivered with 
the body at the point of destination to the person to whom 



532 CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 

it is consigned. The whole duplicate copy shall be sent by 
the forwarding express ageni to the secretary of the state or 
provincial board of health of the state or province from which 
shipment was made. 

Rule 7. — Every disinterred body, dead from any disease or 
cause, shall be treated as infectious or dangerous to the pub- 
lic health, and shall not be accepted for transportation un- 
less said removal has been approved by the state or provin- 
cial health authority having jurisdiction where such body is 
disinterred, and the consent of the health authority of the 
Ideality to which the corpse is consigned has first been ob- 
tained; and all such disinterred remains, or the coffin or 
casket containing the same must be wrapped in a woolen 
blanket thoroughly saturated with a 1 : 1000 solution of cor- 
rosive sublimate, and enclosed in an hermetically soldered 
zinc tin, or copper=lined box. But bodies deposited in re- 
ceiving vaults shall not be treated and considered the same 
as buried bodies, when originally prepared by a licensed em- 
ba liner as denned in Rule 2, and directed in Rule 2, provided 
shipment takes place within thirty days from the time of 
death. The shipment of bodies prepared in the manner 
above directed by licensed embalmers from receiving vaults 
may be made within thirty days from the time of death with- 
out having to obtain permission from the health authorities 
of the locality to which the body is consigned, provided the 
cause of death was not any of the diseases named in Rule 2. 
Aiter thirty days the casket or coffin box containing said 
body must be enclosed in an hermetically soldered box. 

Adopted .Tune 22, 1904. 

The above have been effective since September 1, 1904. 

COMMENTS UPON THE RULES. 
Under the first rule the transportation of bodies dead of 
smallpox or bubonic plague is absolutely forbidden. It 
seems that the reasons for this are as follows: First, the 
lack of confidence in the ability of the embalmer with the 
means at hand, to succeed in sterilizing, or destroying the 



TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES 533 

bacteria of infection within the body; second, the little knowl- 
edge attained by the members of these boards, up to the time 
of the adoption of these rules, in regard to the science of 
embalming. 

If a body can be sterilized that is dead of diphtheria or 
scarlet fever, undoubtedly those dead from the diseases enum- 
erated under Rule 1, can be sterilized also. The poisonous 
or infectious matter in a case of scarlatina is certainly just 
as tenacious as that of smallpox, or bubonic plague. Still, 
under these rules, the scarlatinal case can be shipped while 
that of smallpox cannot. 

It can be stated with positive truth that a body can be ster- 
ilized, it matters not of what infectious or contagious disease 
it dies, if it is properly treated. The means that are neces- 
sary should be at hand, wherever the body is handled, that 
is dead of any infectious disease. Holding a certificate from 
the Board of Heath does not afford these means ; neither does 
a little practice upon the body, but by constant study and 
application only, can the means be obtained. 

The injection of fluid into the arteries and cavities does 
not suffice in all cases. In certain cases the arterial system 
may be abnormal; arteries may be closed; postmortem con- 
traction may still exist ; arteries may be burst, as is the case 
frequently in atheroma; the blood may not have passed into 
the venous side, or clots may intervene at different points. 
Any one of these conditions will prevent the fluid from pass- 
ing into the tissues. The tissues of the body must be filled, 
if entire disinfection results. Any one can see plainly, that 
if either one of these conditions exist, arterial embalming 
would be a failure. 

There are other means by which the tissues may be filled 
when (he arterial circulation is destroyed. Fluid should be 
injected directly into (lie tissues. This can be done in many 
cases through the subcutaneous cellular tissue ; in others, 
;i sul'licicnt quantity cannot be injected in this manner. 
Therefore in Hie latter cases, injection should be made also 
into the deeper (issues through an ordinary hollow=needle. 



534 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Enough fluid can be injected in this manner to fill the tis- 
sues, in cases where the arterial system is destroyed. The 
cavities, especially the serous sacs, the alimentary canal, and 
respiratory tract, should be filled full of fluid. A pint or 
two is not sufficient, generally, to till them. As a rule, much 
more should be used. 

If a body is treated in the above manner, with a strong 
disinfectant fluid, one that will destroy the spores as well 
as (he active bacteria, there will be no doubt of its thorough 
disinfection. 

In addition to the application of the fluid, cotton batting, 
if properly applied, s<> as to coyer every part of the body with- 
out rents, will prevent bacteria from passing out from the 
body. If a body is sterilized thoroughly and encased in 
cotton in this manner, it matters not what the disease was 
that produced death, it can be shipped with perfect safety to 
any pari of the world, There will be no more danger from 
the body than there would be from a shirt worn by the 
patient, after being placed in water containing strong disin- 
fectants, and boiled for three or four hours. 

As stated above, the shipping authorities have not the con- 
fidence in the ability of embalmers in general to prepare 
bodies in a way to render them perfectly free from the dan- 
ger of disseminating disease. The reason for that is a great 
majority of the profession are not students. They learn to 
raise an artery and inject a little fluid and stop at that 
point, thinking it is not necessary to know anything more 
about the business. If all were students and educated in 
their profession, then the authorities would have more confi- 
dence. A certificate from the Health Board does not make 
the student, nor does it make an embalmer out of the man 
who injects only a little fluid into the body. Many are in 
the business, but few are students. 

Under Rule 2, bodies of those that have died of diphtheria, 
(membranous croup), scarlet fever, (scarlatina, scarlet 
rash), glanders, anthrax, leprosy, etc., will be accepted for 
transportation provided they are prepared in a certain man- 
ner; that is, they shall be disinfected by arterial and cavity 



TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES 535 

injection, with an approved disinfectant fluid. As stated 
above, it will be seen that frequently the circulation cannot 
be filled with fluid for reasons there given. If 
either of these conditions exist, then the tissues can be filled 
by direct injection of fluid into them through the hollow= 
needle. The body should then be washed with the disin- 
fectant and the external openings should be injected and 
then closed with pledgets of absorbent cotton. After the 
body is disinfected, it should be enveloped in a layer of cot- 
ton, not less than one inch thick, completely wrapped in a 
sheet and bandaged, and encased in an air=tight zinc, tin, 
copper, or lead=lined coffin or casket, all joints or seams her- 
metically soldered, and all enclosed in a tight wooden box; 
or placed in an ordinary coffin after being prepared and then 
in a zinc-lined box, which should be hermetically soldered, 
then placed in a strong outside box. 

If you observe closely, you will notice that the rules say 
that the body shall be wrapped in cotton. They do not say 
what kind of cotton. A certain author, who has written a 
work on embalming, in giving the rules, has made a mis- 
statement, which is misleading. He states that the body 
shall be wrapped in absorbent cotton. As a matter of fact, 
it makes but little difference, if any, what kind of cotton is 
used, except in expense. Cotton batting, or raw cotton, is 
very cheap as compared with absorbent cotton. The latter 
has no advantage whatever over the former; therefore, we 
would recommend the use of cotton batting. 

When the author first recommended the encasing of a body 
in cotton an inch thick, in a letter* to Mr. Joseph W. Laube, 

* The letter referred to was as follows : 
Mr Josenh Laube, Richmond, Virginia. 

Deab Sir:— In response to your request for information as to whether a hody 
ran be thoroughly disinfected by embalming so as to be perfectly safe for shipment 
n e would say — 

To DISINFECT A BODY FOR SHIPMENT. 

It should be thoroughly embalmed, using fur the purpose the strongest disin- 
fectant chemicals. An antiseptic is not necessarily a disinfectant, indeed, manr 
are not disinfectants at all. bul all disinfectants are positively antiseptic 

The chemicals should read, the tissues, organs, viscera, canals, and cavities that 
contain the Infectious bacteria, in such Quantities as are necessary to destroy the 
spores as well as the active bacteria. This can only be done by injecting large quan- 

I it ies ill the solution of clieluica Is. 



536 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Of Richmond, Va., during the spring of 1897, he stated that 
cotton batting (not absorbent cotton) should be used. 

The bacteriologist uses cotton batting to screen the air, 
that passes into the test=tube, of the bacteria that are floating 
in the air, as bacteria cannot pass through cotton batting. 
For that reason cotton batting was recommended for the en- 
casement of bodies, to prevent the bacteria from passing 
out from the body. The cotton should be applied over the 
whole surface; it should be continuous, no rents or divisions 
in the encasement. 

The best and easiest method for applying it is as follows: — 

Each infectious disease is produced by a specific bacterium: that is, one that is 
always found in the disease, and is present in no other. 

These micro-organisms or bacteria are found in large numbers, in certain parts of 
t!n' body, where the soil is in proper condition for their development — as in the 
throat, in diphtheria: in the alimentary canal, in typhoid fever: in the lungs, in 
consumption : in the intestinal canal, in cholera, etc. — but they may be distributed 
more or less to all parts of the body by the absorbent and blood-vessels. 

If anatomy, physiology, and morbid anatomy, and the infectious diseases are 
studied and understood by the embalmer, he can thoroughly disinfect any body 
dying from infectious or contagious disease. 

As stated above, the strongest disinfectant chemicals should be used (combined 
with other chemicals to hold them in solution) for the embalming fluid. The fluid 
should be injected through the arteries into every tissue of the body, filling them 
thoroughly. Then fill all of the canals and cavities of the body — the respiratory 
canal, the alimentary canal from the mouth to the anus; the serous cavities, etc. — 
for the purpose of disinfecting their contents. Then wash the body with the fluid. 
Fill the ears, nose, and mouth with the same. Lastly, envelop the whole body in 
cotton batting, one inch or more thick, keeping the cotton in i>!nct with on ordir n ry 
bandage. The cotton .should be at least an inch thick on every part of the body 
after the bandagt is appl'.i d. 

If the above directions are followed in its preparation, any infected corpse can 
be rendered perfectly safe, when placed in any common wood or cloth-covered coffin 
or casket, for shipment in any car or conveyance to any part of this country or of 
the world. 

After the embalmment of the body according to the above process it is possible 
that the fluid has not reached every point, so as to make it perfectly safe, the appli- 
cation of the cotton batting is made in the above manner to cover every portion. 
Not the least communication with the surrounding air is made with the body except 
through the cotton, which will positively screen thu air, cleansing it thoroughly of 
the bacteria. It is not possible for the bacteria of any description to pass through 
the cotton either outward or inward. It is known to every one acquainted with the 
methods of cultivating bacteria, that if cotton is placed within the test-tube, cul- 
tures may be made within the tube. None others floating in the air external to 
the tube can pass inward through the cotton placed in the outer end of the tube: 
lierce the encasement of the body with cotton batting. 

Yours very truly, E. Myers. 



TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES 537 

Spread upon the floor a sheet sufficiently long to reach at 
least a foot or a foot and a half above the head and below the 
feet; then spread layers of cotton, side by side, length=wise 
over the sheet, covering the whole surface; then cross=wise, 
side by side, covering the whole surface; then again length= 
wise as before, spreading the cotton in this manner alter- 
nately, until at least six thicknesses of the sheet=cotton or 
cotton batting is spread upon the sheet; then place the body 
in the center of the sheet; bring up the cotton from the ends, 
turning it over the head and feet, throwing the sheet back; 
then one one side in the same manner, throwing the 
sheet back, leaving the cot Ion remain over the body; 
then bring up the sheet from the other side; it will be 
seen that in this manner the* raw surfaces of the cotton will 
overlap each other ; then the sheet should be brought up from 
each end, and then from the sides, and stitched or pinned 
tightly together; then the whole should be wrapped with a 
roller bandage of about three or four inches in width. To 
make the application in this manner will require but one 
assistant, and the bandage can be applied without danger of 
tearing or slipping tlr cotton at any point. A sheet should 
t^en be moistened in a solution of bichlorid of mercury 
1 : 500, and laid across the coffin or casket and the body placed 
in the coffin and the sheet folded over it. The application 
of the moist sheet to the outer surface is for the purpose of 
destroying any bacteria that might be attached to the bandage 
that has been applied to protect the cotton. 

Under Rule 3, bodies dying of typhoid fever, puerperal 
fever, erysipelas, tuberculosis, measles, or other dangerous 
communicable diseases, other than those specified in rules 
1 and 2, are received for transportation. If these bodies are 
embalmed as directed above, and wrapped with cotton in the 
same manner, by one who is authorized by the health board 
of one of the States, it can be shipped without placing in the 
hermetically sealed easkel or box; but if shipped by persons 
not holding sncli certificate, it must be placed in an air-tight 
box or casket. 



338 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EM HAULING 

There is not much danger of disseminating some of the dis- 
eases enumerated, especially that of tuberculosis. There is 
scarcely a man, woman, or child in this country that is not 
exposed almost every day to the tubercular infection. There 
is a possibility of the disease being disseminated through the 
shipment of the body in the ordinary way, but that possi- 
bility is so remote that we can hardly consider it danger- 
ous. There is far greater danger from the living subject 
than from the dead body. The patient that has consump- 
tion is allowed to travel over the country in both sleeping 
and day cars ; to use the floors and cuspidors to deposit the 
sputum that is brought up from the lungs, which contain 
millions of the bacteria that produce the disease; when he 
walks upon the streets he deposits the sputum upon the side- 
walks or in the gutters or roadways ; or, when riding in the 
street=car, he possibly deposits it upon the floor; he is al- 
lowed the same privileges to which the man without disease 
is entitled. 

To prevent the dissemination of consumption, the neces- 
sary methods should not commence with the embalmer; they 
should begin with the beginning of the disease. It is an easy 
matter, at the present time, to determine whether or not the 
patient has consumption. A little of the sputum placed 
under the microscope by the physician is all that is necessary 
to make the diagnosis certain. If it is fouud that the patient 
I. as consumption, isolation should be enforced. He should 
not be allowed to travel our streets, to ride in our public- 
conveyances, or to associate with those who are not affected 
with the disease. He should be sent by the health boards 
into a climate that will aid in destroying the bacteria that 
are growing in his system. If this could be done in the be- 
ginning of the disease, there would be but few that would 
die of consumption. Hospitals should be constructed in 
proper altitudes and maintained by the government, and all 
patients sent to them, as soon as tubercular bacilli develop 
within the svstein. 



TRANSPORTATION OF BODIES 539 

It is not necessary to condemn the methods adopted for 
the shipment of bodies that die of consumption. There can 
be no fault found with them. The only matter of com- 
plaint is that the health boards are not strict where strictness 
is necessary, in the application of sanitary measures for the 
prevention of dissemination of tuberculosis. 

The adoption and final enforcement of these rules will be a 
great convenience to those who will have charge of the ship 
ment of bodies in the future. There will be no special rules 
of the different corporations to conflict, which, heretofore, 
have made it necessary to ascertain the rules of the different 
roads before starting with the body. Under the rules, a 
body can be shipped from, to, and through any of the States 
and provinces in America without question. Restrictions 
that are imposed are not hardships, nor do they increase to 
an appreciable degree, the expenses over previous methods. 
They have the tendency to do away with the making of false 
statements in shipping permits, thereby subjecting the public 
to the dangers of disseminating infectious or contagious dis- 
ease. They will stimulate the student and compel the ig- 
noramus to enlighten himself. The rules are not perfect, 
but will be improved from time to time as necessity requires. 

Every embalmer should have in his place of business, a 
dressing-room, in which there is a tight closet, wash=stand, 
water, soap, and shelves on which to place necessary disin- 
fectants for the purpose of disinfecting himself. He should 
be provided with a rubber coat, which fits closely around 
the neck and is long enough to reach within one=half inch or 
an inch of the floor, a rubber or oiled=silk cap, and an old 
suit of clothes. These should hang in the closet ready for 
use in infections cases, especially those that are communica- 
ble. The shelf should contain a bottle each of bichlorid of 
mercury, 1 : 1000 and 1 : 500, a box of disinfectant salve, a 
nail brush, and a bar of good soap. When he is called to 
take care of an infections case, lie should change his usual 



540 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

suit for the old one; then put on the rubber coat and rubber 
or oiled=silk cap; cover the hands with the disinfectant salve 
or wear a pair of rubber gloves. Dressed in this manner he 
is ready to take care of the case. On returning from the case, 
he should remove the clothing, place them iu the closet, and 
fumigate them. Me should also wash his hands, face, and 
whiskers with soap and the bichlorid of mercury, 1:1000 
solution; he should then cleanse and brush the nails very 
thoroughly; then dip them in the solution of the bichlorid of 
mercury 1 : 500. 

The instrument-case and instruments used in an infectious 
case should be fumigated and disinfected just as thoroughly 
as the clothing that i^ worn. Great care should be taken 
to prevent the dissemination of the disease. 



PART FIFTH 



GENERAL MISCELLANY 



INTRODUCTION TO PART FIFTH. 



In Part Fifth we have introduced some matter which does net appear to 
hare a proper place in other parts cf the work, but which is none the less 
valuable on that account. 

In Chapter XLIV., a number of hints are given to guide the young 
funeral director in the matter of approaching his clients and preparing the 
body for the final obsequies; also, on conducting a funeral from the house 
to the cemetery, including services at the house, church, and grave. 

A chapter on Resuscitation is given, as it often happens that the funeral 
director is the first one called in a case of supposed or apparent death. 
Therefore, he should be well acquainted with the best means of resuscita- 
tion, so as to be able to act promptly in the absence of the physician. 

Then follows a consideration of Post-Mortem Wounds, giving the best 
means of their prevention, and, when received, the proper treatment until 
a physician can be consulted. 

The directions for selection and care of instruments seem necessary to 
protect the embalmer in his purchases, and to aid him in keeping his outfit 
in such a condition that it may always appear new, and to reduce to the 
minimum the danger from handling his instruments. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 



HINTS ON FUNERAL DIRECTING 



The changes have been so great and ideas so advanced 
along this line in the past few years, that the conducting of 
a funeral of to=day, compared with the management of one 
twerity=five years ago, may be likened to the modern electric^ 
lighted train of to=day, traveling at fifty miles an hour, com- 
pared with the stage=coach of those days. The change to 
the present methods of conducting a funeral was a welcome 
one to the bereaved family, the minister, and laity. And 
funeral directors are not stopping at what they have at- 
tained, for each year brings greater advancement. 

When a call comes to him he should receive it with cool- 
ness and reserve. He should not rush to the house of mourn- 
ing as though he were afraid his competitor might get there 
first. He should approach the family with dignity. The 
shock to them may be great, and he may not be able to learn 
all of their wishes at once. 

First, get their confidence and learn their desire regard- 
ing embalming. If the body is to be embalmed, prepare the 
body and raise the artery as directed in preceding chapters. 
Do the work neatly. The trocar should not be used when 
strangers are present, The prejudice against embalming, 
no doubt, should be laid largely to indiscriminate use of 
the trocar. If the subject is that of a female, a lady, a friend 
of the family if possible, should be invited in to see the 
operation. 

After the body lias been embalmed, if a nice couch is in the 
room, use it. Dress the body completely, for no face appli- 
cation will be needed — there will be nothing to soil the cloth- 

543 



544 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

ing. Spread a drapery over the couch, or a sheet may be 
used. Stand a screen in front to break the view. If in 
vs inter ask for a little heat ; never allow the body to freeze. 
A bunch of flowers may be laid near the body; it has a pleas- 
ing effect. Place the body in an easy position, similar to 
the one occupied in bed. It may be difficult, at times, to 
place one hand under the bead, owing to rigor mortis, but 
it is a pleasing position to the relatives. Should the sub- 
ject be a child, use its little bed — if white, a pretty effect 
would be to trim with smilax and flowers; or a settee can be 
very prettily draped, arranging over all a drapery of silk 
illusion. 

After having the body cared for, quietly withdraw, re- 
turning at a later period the same day, or the next, to learn 
the wishes of the family as to pall=bearers, singers, minister, 
number of carriages, flowers to be furnished, casket, etc. 
Give them the cost of everything. Do not lead them into any 
unnecessary expense; be reasonable in all charges. Ask re- 
garding door crape; some dislike any insignia, but, where 
used, a cyeas palm leaf or two, tied with black or purple 
ribbon, is suitable for an aged person, and a wreath or bunch 
of flowers for a child. 

Always place the body in the casket the night before the 
funeral. It is more comforting to the family and gives them 
ample opportunity to take their leave prior to the service, 
which should be insisted upon, be the service at the house 
or at the church. If at the house, the funeral director should 
be there at least one hour before the service, and either have 
an assistant conduct to the casket all who attend, and seat 
them, or do it himself. 

Before the service, when ready for the family, — who should 
remain in privacy meanwhile, — close the casket, and have the 
friends come to the room reserved for them. In this manner 
he will get rid of that horrid custom of tramping past the 
open casket. Do this with the best trade, and, if he has the 
full confidence of the people, he will find others will fall into 
the custom readily. If the service is at a church, it may be 
impossible to adopt this custom. Some seek and desire os- 



HINTS ON FUNERAL DIRECTING 545 

tentation, which should be discouraged, especially among 
those who do not have the necessary means. If the funeral 
director stands in the community as he should, he will wield 
an influence far above any other, and can lead his clients into 
new ways and customs. 

At the house just a nod from the minister should indicate 
that the services are in the funeral director's hands. Then 
nod to the pall—bearers, conduct them to the front door, 
where two assistants, or two of the pall=bearers, should 
deposit the casket. Have the friends remain seated until the 
casket is placed in the funeral car. Two assistants should 
stand at the carriages to seat the friends, as they are sent 
out, a previous list having been made out, of the manner in 
which they are to go. Make haste slowly, here of all places: 
and after all is arranged, get into the buggy and lead the pro- 
cession. 

If it be an Order funeral, place the Order at the head. 
Although they may have a marshal, the funeral director 
should be the man in command. He should not forget this, 
for he belittles himself when he submits to any other authori- 
ty- 

At the grave have chairs for the relatives. Place the Order 
on the outside in a circle. As the casket is being gently and 
solemnly lowered into its last resting place, by the bearers, 
or by one of the modern lowering devices, the ceremony can 
proceed. A very nice service, and one pleasing to the friends, 
should there be plenty of flowers, is to give to each one, at 
the house, a rose or carnation, which, as the last words are 
said, they should quietly drop on the casket and then re- 
tire to their carriages. 

There is no need of undue display of sympathy on the part 
of the funeral director, — it is not what he is called for. His 
tact and gentleness in handling a funeral will go farther to 
make friends than anything else. 

Charges should he moderate. Do not impoverish the liv- 
ing by lavishing upon the dead an expensive funeral. The 
tendency is. the more moderate the means, the greater the 
demands, and it will remain with the funeral director to 



54G CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

solve the desire for a hundred=dollar funeral with a twenty= 
dollar capita] back of his customer. Do the work thorough- 
ly and trust to the honesty of the customer for the pay. 
Encourage briefness of ceremony at the grave. Do what 
can be done to discourage Sunday funerals; you should 
appreciate a day of rest and quiet, and be assured the min- 
ister will he with you. Ministers have duties enough for 
that day, and many will not allow anything. to interfere with 
their regular church services. 

After all is over there comes a business side to it all. If 
a custom of allowing a five per cent, discount, if paid in 
thirty days, were adopted, and the bill seut in, there are, no 
doubt, many who would avail themselves of this discount. 
Do not allow bills to accumulate on the pages of the ledger 
through fear of asking for just dues. You should keep your 
own bills paid and thereby preserve your credit — good credit 
may serve yon at times better than capital. 

The paraphernalia that seems needful is fast growing in 
magnitude and becoming more burdensome each year. The 
funeral director should hail the time of more simplicity in 
funeral trappings. The adoption of many of them is the 
explanation or solution of so many in the business being im- 
poverished, and, unless the funeral director enjoys a large 
clientage, he will find himself falling behind. He should 
have pride enough to have a first-class outfit — one that will 
command the respect of his patrons, — but he should not en- 
tertain the idea that he must possess every new=f angled de- 
vice presented to him. 

The funeral director should keep posted upon matters of 
his profession; he should enlarge his library, from time to 
time, by purchasing practical works on embalming and col- 
lateral subjects; and he should be a subscriber to and read 
as many of the trade journals as he can afford; he should 
join the State Association, and attend its meetings; and 
lend his help to the uplifting of his profession and thereby 
help his brother. 



CHAPTER XLV. 



RESUSCITATION. 



The definition . of resuscitation (re, again; suscito, I stir 
up) is the recovery from suspended animation or apparent 
death. In these conditions, of course, all signs of circula- 
tion and respiration have disappeared, but usually the failure 
of one function has preceded that of the other. 

The methods for producing artificial respiration, and the 
treatment for the purpose of restoring the vital action of 
the different organs of the body, are not given in this work 
for the benefit of the embalmer only, but for all others who 
are likely to come in contact with the cases herein described, 
some of the different methods and rules, that have the sanc- 
tion of the leading physicians and surgeons in the differ- 
ent civilized countries, will be given. 

HOWARD'S METHOD OF ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. 

The first, known and described as Howard's Method of 
Artificial Respiration, is as follows : Place the patient upon 
the back with the face upward; a hard roll of clothing be- 
neath the thorax, with the shoulders slightly declining over 
it. The bead and neck should be bent back to the utmost; 
place the hands on top of the head; strip the clothing from 
the waist and neck. The operator should then kneel astride 
of the patient's hips, and place his hands upon the breast 
so that the ball of each thumb and little finger rests upon 
the inner margin of the free border of the costal cartilages, 
the lij> of each finger near or upon the ensiform cartilage, the 
fingers dipping into the corresponding intercostal spaces. His 
elbow must be fixed firmly, making them one with the hips. 

547 



548 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Action of Operator. — He should press upward and in- 
ward toward the diaphragm, using his knees as a pivot, 
throwing his weight forward two or three seconds, until his 
face almost touches that of the patient, ending with a sharp 
push which helps to jerk him hack to his erect, kneeling posi- 
tion. Rest three seconds, and then repeat the movement 
as before, continuing it at the rate of seven to ten times a 
minute; taking the utmost care, on the occurrence of the 
natural gasp, gently to aid and deepen it into a longer breath, 
until respiration becomes natural. 

This method is said to keep the passage through the larynx 
free, without the aid of an assistant, or any contrivance for 
the purpose, and is recommended for that reason. Artifi- 
cial respiration must precede the use of the stomach pump 
and be continued until either the pulse or natural respira- 
tion returns. Keep up the temperature of the body by hot 
blankets or hot bottles. 

RULES OF THE ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY. 

The Royal Humane Society has recommended the Sylves- 
ter method of artificial respiration in the rules that it has 
published for directions for restoring the apparent dead. 
The rules are as follows : — 

Rule I. — If from Drowning or Other Suffocation, or 

Narcotic Poisoning. — Send immediately for medical assist- 
ance, blankets, and dry clothing, but proceed to treat the 
patient instantly, securing as much fresh air as possible. 

The points to be aimed at are — first and immediately, the 
restoration of breathing; and, secondly, after breathing is 
restored, the promotion of warmth and circulation. 

The efforts to restore life must be persevered in until the 
arrival of medical assistance, or until the pulse has ceased 
for at least an hour. 

Treatment to Restore Natural Breathing. 

First. — To Maintain a Free Entrance of Air Into the 

Windpipe. — Cleanse the mouth and nostrils; open the 



RESUSCITATION 549 

mouth; draw forward the patient's tongue, and keep it for- 
ward — an elastic band over the tongue and under the chin 
will answer this purpose. Remove all tight clothing from 
about the neck and chest. 

Second. — To Adjust the Patient's Position. — Place 
the patient on his back on a flat surface, inclined a little 
from the feet upward ; raise and support the head and shoul- 
ders on a small firm cushion or folded article of dress placed 
under the shoulder=blades. 

Third. — To Imitate the Movements of Breathing. — 
Grasp the patient's arms just above the elbows, and draw the 
arms gently and steadily upward, until they meet above the 
head (this is for the purpose of drawing air into the lungs) ; 
and keep the arms in that position for two seconds. Then 
turn down the patient's arms, and press them gently and 
firmly for two seconds against the sides of the chest (this 
is with the object of pressing air out of the lungs; pressure 
upon the breast=bone will aid this). 

Repeat these measures alternately, deliberately, and perse- 
veringly, fifteen times in a minute, until a spontaneous effort 
to respire is perceived, immediately upon which cease to 
imitate the movements of breathing, and proceed to induce 
circulation and warmth. 

Should a warm bath be procurable, the body may be placed 
in it up to the neck, continuing to imitate the movements of 
breathing. Raise the body in twenty seconds to a sitting 
position, and dash cold water against the chest and face, 
and pass ammonia under the nose. The patient should not 
be kept in the warm bath longer than five or six minutes. 

Fourth. — To Excite Inspiration. — During the employ- 
ment of tin' above method excite the nostrils with snuff or 
smelling=saits, or tickle (lie throat with a feather. Rub the 1 
chest and face briskly, and dash cold and hot water alter- 
nately on them. 



550 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Treatment After Natural Breathing Has Been Restored. 

Fifth. — To Induce Circulation and Warmth.— Wrap 
the patient in dry blankets, and commence rubbing' the limbs 
upward firmly and energetically. Promote the warmth of 
the body by the application of hot flannels, bottles, or blad- 
ders of hoi water, hot bricks, etc., to the pit of the stomach, 
armpits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet. 
Warm clothing may generally be had from the bystanders. 
When swallowing has returned, a teaspoonful of warm water, 
small quantities of wine, warm brandy and water, or coffee 
should be given. Sleep should be encouraged. During the 
reaction, large mustard poultices to the chest will relieve the 
distressed breathing. 

Rule II. — If from Intense Cold.— Rub the body with 

snow, ice, or cold water. Restore warmth by slow degrees. 
It is dangerous to apply heat too early. 
Rule III. — If from Intoxication.— Lay the individual 

upon his side on the bed with his head raised. The patient 
should be induced to vomit. 

Rule IV. — If from Apoplexy or Sunstroke.— Cold 

should be applied to the head, which should be kept raised. 
Tight clothing should be removed, and stimulants cautiously 
used. 

Alcoholic stimulants should not be given until natural 
respiration has been induced, and. in cases of narcotic poi- 
soning, not until consciousness has been restored. If, on the 
return of consciousness, the patient is in pain or faint, the 
inhalation of a few drops of ether or smelling ammonia is 
indicated. In their absense a few teaspoonfnls of brandy 
may be given. Hot tea and coffee should be the first re- 
freshments swallowed; it should not be pressed upon the 
patient, as vomiting is more exhausting than waiting a few 
hours for food. 

Syncope and Asphyxia. 
For the purpose of treatment you may regard those cases, 
where the lips and mucous membrane are found pale and 



RESUSCITATION 551 

bloodless, as syncope ; and those where they are dark=colored, 
as asphyxia. 

Syncope may arise (1) from mental emotion, sudden pain, 
or shock; (2) from drugs and poisons, including anesthetics, 
especially chloroform; (3) from hemorrhage, or anything 
which reduces the due supply of blood to the heart; (4) from 
fatty degeneration or dilatation of the heart. 

Treatment. — Place the patient horizontally on his left 
side, with the pelvis and feet raised ; the windows of the room 
should be opened ; the face should be fanned ; and a little cold 
water may be sprinkled on the forehead. Smelling salts 
should be held to the nostrils. If natural breathing has not 
returned, begin one of the methods of artificial respiration, 
as given above, the temperature of the body being kept up 
by the application of hot blankets or hot bottles. After 
respiration has been fully established, a little brandy, hot 
water, wine, or other stimulants, should be given, with care 
that none of it enters the trachea, If swallowing is impracti- 
cal, inject warm fluids into the rectum. 

Asphyxia from Breathing Noxious Gases. — The body 

should be carried into the fresh air. All clothing should be 
loosened around the neck and over the chest. Artificial 
respiration should be commenced at once, while an assistant 
should blow into the nostrils three or four times. Hot 
blankets and hot water bottles should be applied. 
Asphyxia from Mechanical Obstruction of the Air^ 

passages. — The cause of obstruction must be removed, if 
|M>ssil)le, by placing the patient face downward, aiding the 
dislodgment by the use of the forceps, a button=hook, or the 
handle of a tablespoon. 

Asphyxia from Advancing Coma or from Narcotics 
and Anesthetics. — in these eases, the breathing is stopped 
from the failure of the medulla and respiratory nerves to 
act. Very often there is mechanical obstruction in the 
larynx, which should be considered. Artificial respiration 



552 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

induced by simply compressing the chest at intervals of five 
seconds, may suffice. If raising the chin and throwing the 
head back does not effect a free passage of air, one or the 
oilier of the methods of artificial respiration given should 
be commenced. 

Asphyxia from Drowning.-In asphyxia from immersion 
in water, there are two serious complications, viz., first, 
(lie presence of water and mud in the air=passages, and, 
secondly, the depressing effects of cold. With the view of 
more effectually removing the water from the air=tubes, 
Howard gives the following rules: — 

1. Position of Patient. — Face downward and hard roll 
of cloth beneath the epigastrium, making that the highest 
point and the month the lowest; the forehead resting on the 
forearm or wrist to keep the mouth from the ground. 

2. Position and Action of Operator.— Place the left 
hand well spread upon the base of the thorax to the left of 
the spine, the right hand upon the spine a little below the 
left ami over the lower part of the stomach. Throw upon 
them with a forward motion all the weight and force the 
age and sex of the patient will justify, ending this pressure 
of two or three seconds by a sharp push, which helps you 
back again info the upright position. Repeat this two or 
three times according to the duration of the immersion; then 
apply one or the other of the methods of artificial respira- 
tion. 

3. Suspended Animation from Lightning Stroke or 
Electricity. — In a stroke of lightning or electricity, the 
shock is not necessarily fatal, in spite of the popular notion 
to the contrary. The action of the vital organs is suspended, 
but the organs are rarely destroyed. In these cases, if 
respiration can be artificially maintained for a sufficient 
length of time, there is a fair chance that the heart will re- 
sume its suspended function and that the victim will finally 
recover. Consequently, a person struck by lightning, or hav- 



RESUSCITATION 553 

ing had a severe shock induced by the electric current, should 
never be pronounced dead until one of the methods of resus- 
citation, explained above, has been practiced upon the body 
for at least two or three hours. Dr. D'Arsonval in France 
has practiced the Howard method with success and strenu- 
ously urges its adoption. Experience in this country also 
justifies the continued efforts for a long period of time to in- 
duce reanimation by one of the methods given above. This 
is a matter of great importance, for, although comparatively 
few people are killed by lightning, it seems quite probable 
that the number could be still further reduced by practicing 
artificial respiration, continuing it for hours instead of 
minutes. 

Recent reports show that cases of asphyxia, especially 
those from drowning and suffocation, caused by closure of 
the respiratory tract, without injury to the body, can be re- 
animated after a period of several hours, by application of 
the treatment given above. If the patient has been drowned, 
and has lain in the water even for an hour or two, do not at 
once pronounce him dead, but apply the rules given above 
in a thorough, constant, and scientific manner. 



CITAPTEK XL VI. 



POST MORTEM WOUNDS. 



In the putrefaction of albuminous substances in bodies, 
many chemical combinations are formed, some of which, 
such as poisonous toxalbumins and certain alkaloids, to 
which the name ptoinains, or cadaveric alkaloids, have been 
given, are extremely poisonous. That toxic elements exist 
in the products of decomposition, has long been known to the 
physician and scientist. The character of these substances 
was first recognized by Selma, who gave them the names of 
alkaloids or ptomains. General, fatal poisoning frequently 
results from the handling' of cadavers, or other dead animal 
-matter, by inoculation through the slightest wounds received 
by the operator. 

The poisoning from a corpse usually from inoculation 
through a small wound or puncture, or where the skin has 
been abraded, the wound being sometimes so slight as not to 
be noticed. 

Embalmers are subjected more frequently to the dangers 
of blood=poisoning than any other class of men. Therefore 
they should be made aware of the consequences that fre- 
quently result from the careless maimer in which bodies and 
instruments are handled. The slightest cut or scratch in- 
tiicted with one of the sharp=edged instruments, that are 
used in the operations upon the dead body, may not only 
cause the loss of a finger, a hand, or even a whole extremity, 
bul may cause intense suffering for many days, finally re- 
sulting in death. 

Such wounds are called postmortem wounds. The virus 
may be received also into the system by inoculation through 
abrasions or open wounds, previously existing upon the surface 

554 



POST-MORTEM WOUNDS 555 

of the hands or fingers of the operator. The poison is most 
virulent in fresh bodies, diminishing in intensity as decom- 
position advances. It is most marked when inoculation oc- 
curs in handling cases of septic peritonitis or pleurisy, 
pyemia, septicemia, puerperal fever, diffuse, cellulitis, ery- 
sipelas, spreading gangrene, e^c. The poison only acts by 
direct inoculation, usually occurring through a scratch or 
wound made accidentally while operating on the body; al- 
though any partly healed raw surface, or the cracks in 
chapped hands, or the little fissures at the margins of the 
nails, serve equally well as points of inoculation. 

Before operating upon the dead body the hands should be 
very carefully examined. If the cuticle be denuded at any 
point on the hands or fingers, use rubber gloves or finger= 
cots, or hand=protector, carbolated vaseline, or some similar 
preparation. The latter should be rubbed over the hands, 
under and around the nails very carefully, to prevent the 
absorption of the poison. It is a good practice to take this 
precaution even if the cuticle is supposed to be intact, as 
abrasions may be so slight as to escape notice. 

The embalmer, while operating, should be very careful not 
to wound himself with any of the instruments used in the 
operations. All punctured wounds are extremely danger- 
ous. If such an accident should occur, wash quickly and 
suck the wound thoroughly, or cause it to bleed freely; then 
cauterize it, or wash out with fluid containing bichlorid of 
mercury 1 :1000, or carbolic acid, 3 to 5 per cent., or embalm- 
ing fluid, and cover with hand=protector, collodion, or plaster. 
If the wound is on the finger or hand, wear a finger=cot or 
rubber glove to protect further. the wounded part. 

If a wound is received and inoculation results, the point of 
the inoculation, in from twelve to twenty—four hours, will 
become more or less red and irritated. It may remain in 
this stale for another day, when a brawny swelling of a 



556 CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 

dusky=red will form around it, and extend rapidly in all 
directions, but principally along the line of the lymphatics. 
There is intense burning pain and severe constitutional dis- 
turbances, high temperature, and total loss of appetite, which 
may be followed by spreading gangrene; or, ilie lymphatic 
glands may become swollen and painful, and abscesses may 
form at the elbow and axilla. Septicemia or pysmia may 
follow. 

If any of the above symptoms result, send for the family 
physician at once and be placed under proper treatment. 

When gas from a dead body is inhaled it does not cause 
blood=poisoning, but may cause a kind of septic fever. For 
this reason its inhalation should be avoided. 



CHAPTER XLVIL 



INSTRUMENTS: THEIR SELECTION AND CARE. 



With the growth and process of embalming, especially 
within recent years, a diversified and extensive line of instru- 
ments and other paraphernalia has been brought into exist- 
ence. Some are necessary and useful to the embalmer in 
his work of caring for the dead, while others are practically 
useless, having scarcely anything to commend them except 
their novelty. This admits of great latitude in the selection 
of an outfit, which should be carefully and judiciously made. 
The instruments should be of the best quality and, as far 
as possible, aseptic in their construction. All knives, hooks, 
etc., should be solid in their entirety, without joints or rivets; 
or, if they have joints, they should be made so as to be separ- 
ated in order that they may be easily cleansed and steri- 
lized after each operation. 

It usually follows that the lowest in price is the dearest 
in the long run ; but this is not always true, for sometimes a 
very high price is paid for an inferior article. The success 
of an embalmer may be judged, as a rule, by the selection, 
quality, condition, and appearance of his instruments. It 
is necessary to keep all instruments clean. The importance 
of this cannot be overestimated, for, if not so kept, 
they may be the means of inoculating those who 
handle them with septic matter, causing septicemia or 
blood poison. Even if death does not follow septicemic in- 
oculation or a long siege of sickness may supervene, entailing 
a groat loss of time, money, and neglect of business. Many 
c;iscs are on record where serious consequences have resulted 
from the careless handling of filthy and unsterilized instru- 
ments. 

557 



558 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

Instruments should be cleansed carefully and sterilized 
thoroughly after each operation. Xon=aseptic instruments 
should not be selected, as the aseptic can always be had from 
any reliable supply house Aseptic may be defined as "being 
free from the living germs of disease, and fermentation or 
putrefaction." Only those instruments are aseptic which 
are made without visible joints, or which can be taken apart 
and every portion cleansed. The embalmer should use every 
means that is possible to lessen the danger to the living, in- 
cluding his assistants and himself. 

The surgeon, physician, and dentist always have the finest 
and best instruments, for use in their work, that they are 
aide to procure. They keep them in perfect order, never al- 
lowing them to remain soiled for a moment longer than can 
possibly he helped, thereby preventing the liability to rust 
or destruction by corrosion. The embalmer should be equally 
careful with his instruments. He should never throw his tools 
together into his satchel, to be cleansed by some one else, but 
should at once attend to that duty himself. It is ever a 
true saying, and one that should he cherished, "that a work- 
man is known by his tools." The progressive undertaker 
usually spends hundreds or thousands of dollars for his 
equipment of funeral cars, hearses, carriages, and horses, his 
show=room, its contents, etc. Oftentimes one thing needful 
is neglected; the old worn=out cabinet, with its rusty set of 
tools, usually filthy and septic, is brought forth to do service, 
when, in fact, this part of the paraphernalia should be one 
in which he should take pride and make it his duty to have 
as nearly perfect as possible. This is not only for the sake 
of appearances but that he may be able to do his work with 
safety and in a more scientific and professional manner. 

Sterilizing Instruments. — To sterilize instruments is to 
render them free from living germs by heating or otherwise. 
The following methods for sterilizing are simple and easy of 
application : — 



INSTRUMENTS :THEIR SELECTION AND CARE 559 

All steel instruments should be first cleansed, then boiled 
for half an hour or more in water to which bicarbonate of 
soda has been added; then wiped perfectly dry with a clean, 
soft, woolen cloth or chamois. For the usual number of 
instruments about a quart of water, to which a quarter of a 
pound of the bicarbonate of soda has been added, is required. 
A tin or iron vessel may be used. This process will positive- 
ly free the instruments from all danger of inoculation with 
septic matter through wounds accidentally made while hand- 
ling them. 

All hard=rubber instruments, such as arterial=tubes, hol- 
low=needles, whether metel=lined or not, pumps, etc., should 
be sterilized by flushing and washing, and immersion in a 5 
per cent, solution of formalin for from a quarter to half an 
hour; then they should be washed and dried. Do not apply 
heat in any form. 

No heat should be applied to elastic gum and silk catheters, 
vein and stomach=tubes, rubber tubing, etc. They should be 
sterilized by flushing and washing with a disinfectant so- 
lution, the solution being washed off immediately ; then wiped 
dry with a clean cloth. The most effective solution for 
sterilizing them is one of formalin of from 3 to 5 per cent, 
strength. 

All arterial=tubes should be examined, and, if found closed, 
should be 1 opened by passing a small wire through them. Ex- 
amine all hollow=needles and trocars, and, if found closed, 
open them with the plunger with which they are accom- 
panied. The above means ef cleansing and sterilizing should 
be used as soon as possible after eaeli operation. 

Instruments should not only be kept clean and sterilized, 
but their edges should be sharp and keen=cutting, that the 
incisions and oilier operations can be made as quickly and 
as neatly as possible to appeal- workmanlike and profes- 
sional. 

Selecting Instruments. — The quality and number of in- 
struments should lie selected with a view to performing all 
necessary operations and the finest of work. The greater 



560 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

the number and variety, and the better the quality, other 
things being equal, the better equipped will be the embalmer 
for his professional duties. All manufacturers and jobbers 
of instruments have listed satchels and eases of instruments, 
some fancy, containing' everything, at a very high price, some 
ai a medium price, and others at a low price, to meet the 
size of the purse or ability to pay, of all who wish to purchase, 
I lif selection of instruments being made according to the 
ideas of this, that, or the other embalmer, or simply for show. 
These satchels contain many instruments that are of little 
use, while they are lacking in others that are necessary hi 
making the different operations. When selecting a satchel 
it is important to see thai it contains the instruments that 
are needed in performing all of the usual operations in em- 
balming. The following are recommended as a good selec- 
tion for a practical outfit : — 

One or two scalpels of different sizes; a curved, sharp= 
pointed bistoury; a grooved=director ; forceps; scissors; 
aneurism=needle ; an assortment of arterial tubes of different 
sizes and lengths; surgeon's needles; thread; absorbent cot- 
ton; lintine; adhesive plaster; hand=protector ; silk vein= 
tubes of several sizes, from No. 8 to No. 12; several hollos- 
needles, from the infant to the adult size, from six to fourteen 
inches in length, including a cardiac needle for withdrawing 
blood from the heart ; a couple of sizes of inflexible steel nasal= 
tubes; and a good aspirator and injector: With these, all 
necessary operations may be performed, although there are 
other instruments and accessories that will be xwy handy at 
times, which can be added as the necessities of the operator 
demand. 



ABSURDITIES TAUGHT IN EMBALMING. 



Some of the absurdities taught to-day are not only falla 
cious, but simply ridiculous ; for instance, as "injecting the 
common carotid downward to prevent flushing the face, when 
blood remains in some of the larger arteries" ; the injection 
of veins in conjunction with the injection of arteries, to re- 
move discolorations caused by congestion of the capillaries 
in the exposed parts; the prohibition of poisons, 
by law, in the manufacture of fluids, for fear of hiding 
crime; the practice of always injecting from one to three 
quarts of fluid into the arteries, and a pint or two into the 
cavities, and calling it embalming; the necessity of injecting 
the venous system in certain cases, etc. 

If fluid is injected through the artery at any point in the 
upper extremity, it will have precisely the same effect upon 
all other parts of the body — except the side of the head — on 
which the common carotid is used; and we will add that the 
effect will be better in the face and head, because of the more 
equal distribution of the fluid, as both common carotids are 
open, and equal distribution occurs, which is prevented by 
the tying of the arterial tube in the artery, when the com- 
mon carotid is used. Fluid, to reach that side, must pass 
upward through the opposite common carotid and vertebral 
arteries, and through the Circle of Willis, and other an- 
astomotic branches, to reach the side of the head and face 
on which the common carotid is taken up. 

The injection of fluid upward through the distal end of 
i lie common carotid is a very dangerous operation, especially 
when formaldehyde fluids arc used. Who has not observed 
the extreme ashy color on thai side, while the other side had 
an almost normal appearance? ll may be admitted that if 
extreme caution is used, that a slighl difference in color 
may not be noticeable. Further, we might ask, is there any 

561 



502 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

reason whatever why congestion of the head would follow 
the injection through the artery in the upper extremity rather 
than by the use of the carotid? As stated before, with the use 
of the usual instruments, the pressure and direction of the 
liuid is just the same; and will add that gravity favors the 
tilling of the lower parts first, driving the blood downward in 
the large vessels, then filling those in the upper part last. Of 
course, if congestion takes place, the tying of the carotid will 
no doubt modify the congestion on that side; but how about 
the other? The congestion will be excessive on one side, while 
on the other there will be less, but the appearance would cer- 
tainly be no better. 

The injection of veins iu conjunction with arteries has been 
proposed to remove discolorations caused by tin 1 congestion 
of the capillaries in tin 1 face. Certainly these capillaries 
may be reached directly through the arteries, as well as 
through the veins, and if the blood is not coagulated it is 
possible to force the fluid on through the capillary vessels, 
and driving the blood, thus relieving the congestion. If the 
blood is partially coagulated, the clot may be retained; but 
if fluid is injected, it may receive enough to even change the 
color of the clot, thus relieving the dark discoloration at 
least. If the congested blood is solidly coagulated, the fluid 
injected through: the artery will not drive it out, or will not 
mix with it to any great extent. In the first place, fluid in- 
jected into the vein, if in large quantity, would do harm 
but no good. In the second place, it would not be necessary 
to inject the vein; and in the third place, neither harm nor 
good would follow the injection of the vein. 

The prohibition of poisons by law in the manufacture of 
fluid, for fear of hiding crime, is unnecessary, and prevents 
the use of some of our very best disinfectants. Society could 
be just as well protected by the passage of a law preventing 
the embalmment of a body until after a death certificate lias 
been issued by the proper authorities. 



ABSURDITIES TAUGHT IN EMBALMING 563 

The practice of injecting from one to three quarts of fluid 
into the arteries, and a pint or two into the cavities, and call- 
ing it embalming, is a mistake. No given quantity can be 
used in all cases, though, as a result of a number of experi- 
ments, we would not hesitate to recommend a quantity of 
less than one pint to each twenty pounds weight of the body 
for arterial injection, to sterilize all tissues that are reached 
by the arteries, and in addition a quart or more (owing to 
the judgment of the operator ) to sterilize the contents of the 
cavities which are not reached by the arterial embalming. 
From one to three quarts is not enough fluid to fill all bodies. 
It may fill some, and be all that is necessary when certain 
conditions are present to preserve, but to disinfect, fill the 
tissues full of fluid. If putrefaction takes place after em- 
balmment, it usually occurs in the upper portions of the body, 
thus indicating that the fluid that has been injected has 
settled, together with the blood and other liquids of the body, 
to the pendant parts, leaving the upper portions without 
fluid. Xow, in the treatment, had enough fluid been in- 
jected, the upper portions would retain the fluid, as well 
as the pendants, and putrefaction would not have followed 
in any part of the body. We would advise that the profes- 
sion be more particular, and break away from routine work, 
and treat each case separately and from a scientific stand- 
point. 

Fluid should never be injected in the veinous system for 
any purpose whatever. The entire body, including the con- 
tents of the veinous system (the blood), may be thoroughly 
disinfected by injecting through the arterial system, when 
the circulation is intact. The fecal matter in the alimentary 
canal, and contents of the stomach, and the serous sacs may 
be reached by cavity embalming. Always remember to in- 
ject enough fluid in your operations in embalming. 

A number of other absurd operations are taught, but call- 
ing attention to those referred to above we deem sufficient 
for our present purpose. 



A COMPENDIUM 



CONSISTING OF PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



INTRODUCTION TO COMPENDIUM. 



The questions and answers given in the following pages constitute only 
a partial review of the more important parts of the body of this work, and 
will serve as a guide both to the student and teacher. We believe a careful 
study of them by the student will prove very beneficial and fix important 
truths in the mind in a way not possible by a simple perusal of the text. 

A systematic study of the questions and answers is especially recom- 
mended for all those who contemplate taking an examination before one 
of the State boards. We do not claim that these questions are the same as 
those asked by the examiners, but we do believe an ability to answer them 
correctly will qualify one to give appropriate replies to the questions usu- 
ally propounded by such boards. 

We would caution members of examining boards against the use of 
what are known as "catch questions" in conducting examinations. Such 
questions do not do justice to those taking the examination. Only such 
questions should be selected as can be answered after practical training 
and a reasonable study of the subject. The object aimed at will be best 
attained by careful and conscientious attention to this matter. 



I.— ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



BONES, MUSCLES, ETC. 

1. What is osteology? 

It is the science of the structure and function of bones. 

2. Into how many parts is the body divided? 

Five : head, neck, trunk, and upper and lower extremities. 

3. How many classified bones are there in the body? 

There are two hundred 

4. In to what classes are they divided? 

Long, short, flat, and irregular. 

5. Where are the long bones found? 

In the upper and lower extremities. 

6. Name the long bones. 

Humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, 
metatarsals, phalanges, and clavicle. 

7. Where are the short bones found? 

The carpals in the wrist and tarsals in the foot. 

8. Where are the flat bones found? 

In the cranium and trunk. 

8. Name some flat bones. 

( Occipital, frontal, scapula, innominate, sterum, ribs, etc. 

10. Where are irregular bones found? 

Principally in the face and spinal column. 

11. Name some irregular bones in the head. 

Temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid, malar, superior and inferior 
maxillary, etc. 

12. Give the number and names of the bones of the spinal column. 

There are 26 in the adult — 24 vertebrae, the sacrum, and 
the coccyx; in youth, the sacrum consists of five and the 
coccyx of four vertebrae, which finally coalesce into a single 
bone each. 

13. How are the vertebrae divided? 

Into the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar. 

14. How many of each? 

Seven cervical, twelve dorsal, and five lumbar. 



568 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOF ON EMBALMING 

15. What are the atlas and axis? 

They are the upper two cervical vertebrae, the axis articu- 
lating witb the occipital bone on either side of the foramen 
magnum. 

16. Of what are the skull-bones composed? 

In general, of two compact plates, outer and inner, with a 
spongy layer, known as the diploe, between; the outer plates 
are joined by notched edges or sutures. 

17. What are sesamoid bones? 

Small osseous masses developed in tendons near certain 
joints. 

18. Name the largest sesamoid bone in the body. 

The patella or knee=cap. 

19. What are ligaments? 

They are strong- bands of a smooth, compact, fibrous tis- 
sue, which bind together the bones at their joints. 

20. Locate Poupart's ligament. 

It is attached to the upper anterior point of the hip=bone 
and extends to the center of the pubic arch; it forms the 
upper boundary of Scarpa's triangle, and the division be- 
tween the abdomen and thigh. 

21. Describe the muscular tissue. 

Muscular tissue is the red tissue that is seen on cutting- 
down into the body; it is composed of fibrils, which contract 
and relax ; muscles are of different shapes, and are attached 
to the parts by tendons. 

2L. There are how many kinds of muscular tissue? 

Two : voluntary and involuntary. 

23. What are voluntary muscles? 

They are those under the control of the will, as the 
muscles of locomotion and of prehension and tact. 

24. Where are voluntary muscles usually found? 

On the outer side of the skeleton. 

25. What are involuntary muscles? 

Those not under control of the will, as the diaphragm, 
heart, etc. 

26. Where are the involuntary muscles found? 

On the inside of the skeleton, as in the organs of the 
cavities. 

27. What is the origin and insertion of a muscle? 

The origin is the attachment that is not movable, or least 
movable; the insertion is the attachment that is movable, or 
most movable. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 569 

28. Give the origin and insertion of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. 

It has its origin from the half of the upper end of the 
sternum and the inner third of the clavicle; and is directed 
upward and backward along the front and side of the neck, 
to be inserted into the mastoid process of the temporal bone 
behind the ear. 

29. What is the anatomical guide to the common carotid artery? 

The front border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. 

30. What is the anatomical guide for the brachial artery. 

The inner border of the biceps muscle. 

31. What is the anatomical guide for the femoral artery? 

The inner border of the sartorius or tailor's muscle. 

32. How many muscles are there in the body? 

Over five hundred. 

33. What are tendons? 

Tendons are white, shiny masses of hard, fibrous tissue, 
forming the terminations or connections of the fleshy por- 
tions of the muscles. 

34. Locate and describe Scarpa's triangle. 

It is situated in the upper part of the thigh ; is of a tri- 
angular shape with the base upward, bounded by Poupart's 
ligament, and the apex downward; the outer border is 
bounded by the sartorius muscle, and the inner by the ad- 
ductor longus. 

35. Locate and describe the diaphragm. 

It is the great muscle of respiration, and is situated trans- 
versely across the trunk, between the thoracic and abdomi- 
nal cavities, which it divides, forming the floor of the former 
and the roof of the latter. 

36. How many openings has it? 

Three : the aortic, esophageal, and caval (opening for the 
inferior vena cava) ; it is impervious to liquids contained in 
or injected into either cavity. 

37. Locate and describe the axillary space. 

The axilla, or axillary space, is the hollow beneath the 
juncture <>f the arm and shoulder, known as the armpit, 

38. Name the principal soft tissues on the outside of the skeleton. 

Skin, cellular I fat ) <>i- superficial fascia, deep fascia, mus- 
cular, etc. 

39. What are the subcutaneous tissues? 

Those lying immediately beneath the skin, as the fat or 
cellular, etc. 



570 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

40. Describe the skin. 

The skin covers the entire surface of the body; is elastic, 
and protects the tissues beneath; it is an excretory organ, 
through which part of the waste is excreted. 

41. What are its layers? 

The skin consists of two distinct layers: The outer — 
epidermis, cuticle, or scarf-skin; the inner — cutis dermis, or 
true skin. 

42. What is the rete mucosum? 

It is the inner layer of the cuticle, which attaches the lat- 
ter to the true skin and contains the pigment or coloring- mat- 
ter which gives to the different races their complexion. 

43. Describe the fat or cellular tissue. 

The fat or cellular tissue is composed of white, areolar 
substance (outer layers of the superficial fascia), which is 
very loose and is formed into cells; fat is deposited within 
these cells to a greater or less extent in each individual. 

44. How are the fasciae classified? 

Into superficial and deep. 

45. Describe the superficial fascia. 

It is composed of fibro=areolar tissue; and is beneath and 
co=extensive with the skin, attaching the latter to the deeper 
tissues. 

46. Describe the deep fascia. 

The deep fascia is composed of an inelastic, dense, 
aponeurotic structure, which binds down the muscles, giv- 
ing form and symmetry to their bulk, protects the arteries, 
and forms sheaths for the muscles, vessels, nerves, and ten- 
dons. 

47. What are the lymphatic vessels? 

The lymphatic vessels are distributed to every part of the 
body, and receive and take up the surplus of the nourishment 
that has been carried to the tissues by the blood, and conveys 
it back to the center of the body, where it enters the circula- 
tion through the thoracic duct on the left side and the lym- 
phatic duct on the right side. 

48. What is the lymph? 

It is a transparent, colorless, alkalin fluid, closely resem- 
bling blood, with its red corpuscles absent, and diluted with 
water, which is carried through the lymphatic system. 

VISCERAL ANATOMY. 
49". How many large cavities are there in the body? 

Three: cranial, thoracic, and abdominal. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 571 

50. Of what does visceral anatomy treat? 

It treats of the organs contained in these cavities, with 
their appendages and coverings. 

51. What are these organs and appendages called? 

Viscera, or visceral organs; and those of any cavity are 
called the viscera of that cavity. 

52. Name some visceral organs. 

The brain, lungs, heart, liver, spleen, kidneys, etc. 

53. Describe the thoracic cavity. 

It is a cone=shaped, cavity, situated in the upper part of 
the trunk, with the apex at the neck and the base downward ; 
its floor is formed by the diaphragm, its side walls by the ribs, 
front by the breast=bone, and the back by the twelve dorsal 
vertebra?. 

54. How is it divided? 

Into a right and left side, and a medium space, the medi- 
astinum. 

55. How many ribs are in the thorax? 

Twenty=four, twelve on each side, being numbered from 
above downward ; the anterior end of the first rib is located 
close to and beneath the collar=bone. 

56. How are the ribs classified? 

On either side into seven true and five false, two of the 
latter being floating. 

57. What are the spaces between the ribs called? 

They are called intercostal spaces, and are numbered from 
above downward, the first being between the first and second 
ribs, the second between the second and third ribs, etc. 

58. Describe the abdominal cavity. 

It is the largest cavity in the bod.y and is situated between 
the thorax above and the pelvis below ; it is bounded above by 
the diaphragm, below by the brim of the pelvis, at the back 
by the vertebral column and fascia?, in front and at the sides 
by the transversalis fascia, lower ribs, and iliac venter. 

59. Give the principal contents of the abdominal cavity. 

The stomach, large ami small intestines, liver, gall-blad- 
der, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, suprarenal capsules, abdomi- 
nal aorta, inferior vena, cava, peritoneum, etc. 

60. For convenience of description, how is the abdomen divided? 

It is divided into nine regions by two horizontal lines, one 
betwet'ii Hit- cartilages of the ninth ribs, another between the 



572 CHAMPION TEXT BOOK ON EMBALMING 

crests of the ilia, and two vortical lines from the cartilage of 
the eighth ribs on each side to the center of Poupart's liga- 
ment. 

61. Name the regions. 

On the right side. In the middle. On the left side. 

Right hypochondriac. Epigastric. Left hypochondriac. 

Right Lumbar. Umbilical. holt lumbar. 

Right iliac or inguinal. Hypogastric. Left iliac or inguinal. 

62. What are the contents of the tight hypochondriac region? 

Right lobe of liver, gall=bladder, duodenum, hepatic 
flexure of colon, upper part of kidney, and right suprarenal 
capsule. 

63. Of the epigastric region? 

Right two=thirds of the stomach, left lobe of liver, pan- 
creas, solor plexus, etc. 

64. Of the left hypochondriac region? 

Splenic or cardiac end of stomach, spleen, upper half of 
left kidney, and left suprarenal capsule. 

65. Of the right lumbar region? 

Ascending colon, lower half of right kidney, and part of 
small intestine. 

66. Of the umbilical region? 

Transverse colon, transverse duodenum, and part of small 
intestine. 

67. Of the left lumbar region? 

Descending colon, lower half of kidney, and part of small 
intestine. 

68. Of the right iliac region? 

Right ureter, appendix vermiformis, cerum and spermatic 
vessels. 

69. Of the hypogastric? 

Parts of the small intestine, bladder in children and when 
distended in adults, and uterus during pregnancy. 

70. Of the left iliac region? 

Sigmoid flexure, left ureter, and spermatic vessels. 

NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

71. Of what does the nervous system consist? 

The brain, spinal cord, and the nerves; it unites the vari- 
ous parts and organs of the body into one complete organic 
whole, and is the medium through which all impressions upon 
the mind are received and acted upon. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 573 

72. Describe the cranial cavity. 

It is an egg-shaped cavity in the head ; its walls are formed 
by the frontal bone in front, occipital behind, parietal and 
temporal on either side, and ethmoid and sphenoid in the 
base. 

73. What is the cerebrospinal cavity? 

It consists of the cranial cavity and spinal canal. 

74. What does it contain? 

The brain and spinal cord with their coverings or men- 
inges. 

75. What are those coverings? 

The dura mater, pia mater, and arachnoid; these mem- 
branes cover the brain and extend down through the foramen 
magnum, covering the spinal cord in the same manner. 

76. Describe the dura mater. 

It is a dense, tough, fibrous membrane, lining the interior 
of the cranial cavity and spinal canal, being the outer en- 
velope of the brain and spinal cord. 

77. Describe the pia mater. 

The pia mater is a soft vascular membrane, which close- 
ly invests the brain and cord, and extends down between the 
convolutions; from it the arteries dip down toward the center 
of the brain and cord, distributing blood to every part. 

73. Describe the arachnoid. 

It is a double serous membrane, between the dura and pia 
mater, forming a closed sac, and secretes serum for the pur- 
pose of oiling the surfaces to prevent friction. 

79. What are nerves? 

They are white, glistening cords, made up of bundles of 
nerve=fibers, and penetrate every part of the body; they are 
hard to the touch, solid, and can easily be distinguished from 
arteries or veins. 

80. What important organ does the cranial cavity contain? 

The brain. 

81. Of what is the brain composed? 

1 1 is composed of a number of centers, which are connected 
with one another and with the motory and sensory nerves of 
1 he system, and consists of both white and grey matter. 

82. Into what parts is the brain divided? 

Ii is divided into three portions: cerebrum, cerebellum, 
and medulla oblongata. 



574 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

83. Describe and locate the cerebrum. 

It occupies the front and upper back part of the cranial 
cavity, comprising about seven=eighths of the entire weight 
of the brain; it is divided into two lateral halves, right and 
left, which are connected by a transverse commissure, the 
corpus collosuni. 

84. How is each hemisphere divided? 

By fissures on the under surface into three lobes: an- 
terior, middle, and posterior. 

85. Describe the cerebellum. 

It is situated beneath the posterior lobes of the cerebrum; 
is divided into two hemispheres; it is small, weighing only 
about five ounces, and is a center for the control of voluntary 
muscles, particularly those of locomotion. 

86. Describe the medulla oblongata. 

It is the upper and larger portion of the spinal cord, ex- 
tending from the atlas to the pons varolii; it connects the 
spinal cord with the cerebellum and cerebrum; it is the part 
that has entire control over respiration; if it is injured or 
destroyed, breathing ceases and death results. 

87. Describe the spinal cord. 

It is the cylindrical, elongated part of the cerebrospinal 
axis, which is contained in the spinal canal; it is about 10 or 
17 inches in length in the adult; begins at the upper border 
of the axis and ends at the lower border of the first lumbar 
vertebrae. 

88. How many pairs of nerves does it give off? 

It gives off 31 pairs: 8 cervical, 12 dorsal, 5 lumbar, 5 
sacral, and one coccygeal. 

89. How many roots has each nerve? 

Two: an anterior (motory) and posterior (sensory); 
these unite into one sheath, preserving their special func- 
tions throughout their many subdivisions. 

90. What is the cerebrospinal nervous system? 

It includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves given off 
from them ; it presides over sensation, special senses, volun- 
tary motion, intellect, and all movements which characterize 
different individuals. 

91. What is the sympathetic nervous system? 

It consists of nerves and ganglion, of which there are 
about .30 pairs. It supplies the involuntary muscular tissue, 
governs all acts of secretion, equalizes the circulation, and 
controls nutrition. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 575 

RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

92. Give the contents of the thoracic cavity. 

The right and left lungs and right and left pleurae on the 
sides ; the heart and pericardium, aorta, part of the ascending 
vena cava, descending vena cava, the trachea, and esophagus 
or gullet, in the middle space, or mediastinum. 

93. Of what do the organs of respiration consist? 

They consist of the respiratory tract, or air=passages, the 
lungs, and certain muscles which assist in the act of breath- 
ing. 

94. Of what does the respiratory tract consist. 

Of the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi. 

95. Where do the air-passages begin? 

They begin with the mouth and nose ; the proper passages 
for the air to enter in breathing are in the nose, though we 
can breathe through the mouth. 

96. Describe the nasal passages. 

They extend from the outer openings of the nose to the 
pharynx ; are lined with a smooth, soft, mucous membrane, 
the surface of which is greatly increased by the projection in- 
to the nasal cavity of peculiarly shaped bones; the lining 
membrane is constantly kept moist, thus catching particles 
of dust from the air, which is moistened and slightly warmed 
in its passage through. 

97. Describe and locate the pharynx. 

The pharynx, or throat, is a musculo-membraneous sac, 
conical in form, 44 inches long, extending from the basilar 
process of the occipital bone to the lower border of the cricoid 
cartilage in front and the fifth cervical vertebrae behind ; it 
lies back of the nose, mouth, and larynx. 

98. How many openings has it? 

Seven : two posterior nares from nose, two eustachian 
from ears, and one each from larynx, mouth, and esophagus. 

99. Describe and locate the larynx. 

It is a musculocartilaginous, triangular-shaped box, com- 
posed of a number of cartilages connected together by liga- 
ments and moved by numerous muscles, situated between the 
tongue and trachea; the projection in the front of the neck, 
known as Adam's Apple, is formed by the largest of these 
cartilages. 

100. What are the glottis and epiglottis? 

The glottis is (lie opening from the throat into the larynx; 
the epiglottis is a leaf-like portion of nbi'o=eartilage, which 



57fi CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

(loses over the glottis when food or drink is swallowed, pre- 
venting the entrance into the windpipe of any foreign mat- 
ter; during the act of breathing it leaves the glottis unob- 
structed. 

101. Describe and locate the trachea. 

The trachea, or windpipe, is a cylindrical, membrano=car- 

ilaginous tube, about A\ inches in Length and 1 inch in 

diameter, extending from lower border of larynx, opposite 

fifth cervical vertebra, to third dorsal vertebra, where it 

divides into two branches. 

102. What are the bronchi? 

They are the right and left divisions of the trachea, which 
enter the lungs, dividing and subdividing into many bron- 
chial tubes, ramifying all parts of the lungs. 

103. What are the bronchioles? 

They are the last and most minute subdivisions of the 
bronchial tubes. 

104. What are the air-cells? 

There is an aii-cell at the end of each bronchiole, in the 
walls of which the blood is purified in its passage through the 
pulmonary circulation. 

105. Describe the lungs. 

The lungs are two in number, right and left ; one placed on 
the right and the other on the left side of the thoracic cavity; 
\\w\ weigh together about 42 ounces; are conical in shape; 
the right lung is the larger and has three lobes, while the 

left lung is smaller and has but two lobes. 

106. What is the root of the lv.ng:? 

The root of the lung is where the bronchial vessels and 
nerves, bound together by areolar tissue, enter the lung. 

107. What is the eoler of the lungs? 

The color of the lungs at birth is pinkish=white, which be- 
comes mottled as age advances by slate=colored patches from 
deposits of carbonaceous granules in the areolar tissue of the 
organ. 

108. What is the structure of the lungs? 

The lungs are invested with a serous coat, and a sub- 
serous, areolar tissue, investing the entire organ, extending 
inward between the lobules and the parenchyma, or true lung 
tissue, composed of lobules, each consisting of a number of 
air-cells, arranged around the termination of a bronchiole, 
and surrounded by plexuses of pulmonary and bronchial 
arteries and veins, lymphatics, and nerves. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 577 

109. How are the lungs nourished? 

The lungs are nourished by the bronchial arteries, which 
are derived from the thoracic aorta; they ramify every part 
of the lungs to the capillaries, where the blood is taken up by 
the bronchial veins, which open on the right side into the 
vena azygos and on the left side into the superior intercostal 
vein. 

110. Describe the pleurae. 

The pleurae are two delicate, serous, shut sacs, one sur- 
rounding each lung and reflected over the pericardium, dia- 
phragm, and inner surface of the thorax. 

111. What are the pleural cavities? 

They are the spaces between the lungs and thoracic walls 
on either side within the two layers of the pleural sacs. 

112. What is the mediastinum or median space? 

It is the space between the two pleurae in the median line 
of the thorax, extending from the sternum to the vertebral 
column, and containing all of the viscera of the chest ex- 
cept the lungs and pleurae. 

ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 

113. Of what do the organs of digestion consist? 

They consist of the alimentary canal and accessory 
organs. 

114. What is digestion? 

It is a process which all food must undergo before it is in 
condition to afford nourishment to the tissues; it is while 
passing through the digestive organs that digestion takes 
place. 

115. Describe the ailmentary canal. 

It is a musculo=membranous tube, 25 to 30 feet in length, 
extending from the mouth to the anus. 

116. What kind of a marr.brane lines the alimentary canal? 

A mucous membrane, which secretes mucous. 

117. Name the divisions of the alimentary canal. 

The mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and large and 
small intestines. 

118. What are the accessory organs of digestion? 

The tongue, teeth, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, spleen, 
etc. 

119. Describe the mouth. 

It is an oval-shaped cavity, formed by the lips, cheeks, 
jaws, palate, and tongue; contains the tongue, teeth, hard and 
soft palates, etc. ; and opens posteriorly into the pharynx. 



578 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

120. Describe the esophagns. 

The esophagus, or gullet, is a musculo=membranous 
canal, about nine inches long, extending along the front of 
the spine, from the larynx to the cardiac orifice of the 
stomach, opposite the ninth dorsal vertebra. 

121. Describe the stomach. 

It is the principal organ of digestion, large at one end and 
smaller at the other; is about 12 inches in length, and 4 
inches in average diameter; lies diagonally across the upper 
part of the abdomen; and holds ordinarily from three to five 
pints. 

122. Of what are the walls of the stomach composed? 

They are composed of three coats, an outer, fibroblastic 
connective tissue; a middle, muscular; and an inner, 
mucous. 

123. Describe the small intestine. 

It is a convoluted tube, about 20 feet in length, beginning 
at the pyloric end of the stomach and ending at the ileocecal 
opening in the right iliac region. 

124. Name and describe its divisions. 

The upper end is called the duodenum, about 12 finger 
breadths (10 inches) in length; the jejunum, so named from 
being usually found empty, includes about two=fifths of the 
remainder; the ilium, so named from its twisted course, con- 
stitutes the balance. 

125. Describe the large intestine. 

It extends from the termination of the ilium at the 
ileocecal valve to the anus; is about five feet in length, much 
larger than the small intestine, more fixed in position, and 
is sacculated; its chief office is the expulsion from the body 
of the undigested portion of food, known as feces. 

126. Name and describe its divisions. 

The cecum, the first part, is the blind pouch below ileoce- 
cal opening; the colon constitutes the greater part of the 
large intestine, extends from cecum to rectum, and is divided 
into ascending, transverse, and descending portions, and 
sigmoid flexure; the rectum is about six or eight inches long, 
ending at 1 lie anus. 

127. What is the vermiform appendix? 

It. is a narrow, worm=like tube, about the size of a goose= 
quill, and from three to six inches in length; it is attached to 
the cecum or beginning of the large intestine. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 579 

128. Describe and locate the liver. 

It is the largest glandular organ in the body, weighs 3 or 
4 pounds, measures transversely about 12 inches, from front 
to back about 6 or 7 inches, and in thickness about 3 inches ; 
is located on right side immediately beneath diaphragm in 
right hypochondrium and extends across epigastrium to left 
hypochondrium. 

129. Into how many lobes is it divided? 

Five : right and left lobes, which form the bulk of the 
liver; lobus quadratus, lobus Spigelii, and lobus caudatus. 

130. What is the function of the liver? 

It is intended mainly for the secretion of bile, but also 
effects important changes in certain constituents of the blood 
in its passage through the gland. 

131. What is the bile? " 

It is a bitter, viscid, yellowish, or greenish liquid secreted 
by the liver, and discharged into the duodenum, where it 
mixes with the chyme, aiding in digestion, chiefly acting on 
the fats. 

132. What is biliverdin? 

It is the green pigment or coloring matter of the bile. 

133. What is the bilerubin? 

It is the yellow coloring matter of the bile. 

134. What are the biliary ducts? 

They are the hepatic and cystic ducts and the ductus 
communis choledochus, which convey the bile to the intestine. 

135. Describe and locate the gail-bladder. 

It is a conical, pear-shaped sac, the reservoir of the bile, 
and li< j s on the under surface of the liver. 

136. Describe the spleen. 

The spleen possesses no excretory duct, is oblong and flat- 
tened, about the size of a fist, is very brittle, contains much 
blood of a bluislr=red color, and is situated in the left hypo- 
condriac region. 

137. What are the suprarenal capsules? 

They are two small crescentic=shaped ductless glands, 
situated one on each kidney. 

138. What is the pancreas? 

II is a racemose gland, aboui 7 inches in length, of n 
gnayish=white color, and situated behind the stomach. 

139. Describe and locate the kidneys. 

They are the largesl tubular glands of the body, located 
in (he rigid and lefl lumbar regions, behind the peritoneum. 



580 CHAMPIOX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

anl secrete the mine; they are oblong and flattened, about 
4 inches long, 2 inches broad, and an inch thick, and weigh 
4i to 6 ounces. 

140. What are the ureters? 

They are cylindrical membranous tubes, 10 to 18 inches 
long, which convey the urine from the kidneys to the bladder. 

141. What is the peritoneum? 

It is a sero=membranous shut sac, one layer of which 
covers the abdominal and pelvic viscera, while the other is 
reflected over and forms the lining of the anterior and lateral 
abdominal walls. 

142. What is the peritoneal cavity? 

It is the space between the intestines and abdominal wall 
within the peritoneal sac. 

143. What is the pelvis? 

The pelvis is a basin=like cavity, situated at the lower 
end of the trunk, and is the outlet of the abdominal cavity; it 
contains the bladder, internal organs of generation, and rec- 
tum. 

144. Describe the bladder. 

It is a musculo=membranous sac located in the adult in 
the pelvic cavity, ami serves as a reservoir for the urine. 

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 

145. What do you understand by the circulatory system? 

It is a system of organs and vessels by which the blood 
circulates through and into every part of the body. 

146. What are the organs of circulation? 

They are the heart and blood=vessels. 

147. How are the blood-vessels divided? 

They arc divided, according to the kind of work done, in- 
to three classes: arteries, capillaries, and veins. 

148. Describe and locate the heart. 

It is a hollow, muscular organ, placed between the lungs 
and enclosed in the cavity of the pericardium; it rests ob- 
liquely across the chest, its base being directed upward and 
backward to the right and the apex, downward, forward and 
to the left, corresponding to the interspaces between the 
cartilages of the fifth ami sixth ribs, one inch to the inner 
side and two inches below the left nipple; it projects about 
3^ inches into the left side and 1| inches into the right side. 

149. What are its functions? 

It is the central organ of the blood=vascular system, and 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 581 

by its alternate contractions and dilatations propels the blood 
to all parts of the body. 

150. What is the size and weight of the heart? 

The adnlt heart is about 5 inches in length, 3^ in width, 
and 2h in thickness, being about the size of the fist ; it weighs 
from 10 to 12 ounces in the male and from 8 to 10 ounces in 
the female ; it increases in size and weight as age advances, 
the increase being less marked in women than in men. 

151. How is the heart divided? 

It is divided by a thin, muscular septum, into two lateral 
halves, which, from their position, are named the right and 
left ; each half is divided into two cavities by a constriction. 

152. What are the cavities called? 

The upper cavities are called auricles and the lower, ven- 
tricles ; there are, therefore, a right and left auricle and a 
right and left ventricle. 

153. Describe the right auricle. 

It is a little larger than the left, its walls are somewhat 
thinner, measuring about one line; it consists of a principal 
cavity and an appendix auriculae, and has a capacity of about 
two fluid ounces. 

154. Describe the right ventricle. 

It is triangular in form, extends from the right auricle to 
near the apex of the heart; its upper surface is rounded and 
convex and forms the larger part of the front of the heart, its 
wall is only about one=half the thickness of the left ventricle. 

155. Describe the left auricle. 

It is smaller than the right, but its walls are thicker, 
measuring about one and a half lines; it receives the arteri- 
alized blood from the lungs; like the right, it has a principal 
cavity and an appendix auriculae. 

156. Describe the left ventricle. 

It is longer, thicker, and more conical than the right, pro- 
jecting toward the posterior aspect, forming the apex of the 
heart ; its walls are about two or three times as thick as are 
those of the right ventricle, being about 6 to 8 lines in thick- 
ness. 

157. What is the endocardium? 

The endocardium is a transparent serous membrane 
which lines ! he cavities of the heart. 



582 CHAM I'! <>.X TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

158. What is the pericardium? 

The pericardium is a serous sac which envelops and con- 
tains the heart. 

159. Which cavities of the heart receive the blood? 

The auricles; the right auricle receives the impure blood 
from all parts of the body, while the left receives the purified 
blood from the lungs. 

160. To what cavities does the blood pass from the auricles? 

To the ventricles, which force it out into the arteries. 

161. What are the auriculo-ventricular openings? 

The openings between the auricles and ventricles, two in 
number, right and left, the right being guarded by the tricus- 
pid valve, and the left, by the bicuspid or mitral valve. 

162. Where is the aortic opening? 

The aortic opening is in the left ventricle and is the be- 
ginning of the aorta. 

163. What is the pulmonary opening? 

The pulmonary opening is in the right ventricle and is 
the beginning of the pulmonary artery. 

164. By what valves are these openings guarded? 

By the semilunar valves. 

165. Where are the vena cava openings located? 

In the right auricle. 

166. Into what cavity do the pulmonary veins open? 

Into the left auricle. 

167. Are these openings guarded by valves? 

They are not. 

168. What is the blood? 

It is the liquid by means of which the circulation is ef- 
fected ; it permeates every part of the body, carrying nutri- 
tion to, and waste from, the tissues of the body. 

169. What is the composition of t'<e blood? 

It is composed of a thin, colorless liquid, the plasma, and 
discs or cells; these eel Is, <»r corpuscles, are of two different 
kinds, the red and the white; there are about <><><> red to one 
white corpuscle; the red corpuscles are about 1/3000 of an 
inch in diameter, and contain the red coloring matter of the 
blood, called hemoglobin. 

170. What is the amount of blood contained in the body? 

The amount of blood is equal to about 1/10 of the weight 
of the body; therefore, in a body weighing 150 pounds, it 
amounts to about 15 pounds. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 583 

171. What elements does the blood contain? 

The plasma or liquor sanguinous is rich in mineral mat- 
ter for the bones, and albumen for the muscles; the red cor- 
puscles contain oxygen, which is so essential to every opera- 
tion in life; it stimulates to action and tears down all that 
is worn out. 

172. Of what color is impure blood? 

It is a dark=blue. 

173. What color is pure blood? 

It is a bright=red. 

174. There are how many principal circulations? 

Two : the pulmonary or lesser, and systemic or greater. 

175. Of what vessels does the pulmonary circulation consist? 

The pulmonary arteries, the capillaries in the walls of the 
ah-cells, and the pulmonary veins. 

176. Where does the pulmonary circulation begin, and where end? 

It begins in right ventricle of heart and ends in left auri- 
cle. 

177. Describe the course of, and the changes that take place in, the blood in the 
pulmonary circulation. 

The blood starts from the right ventricle and passes 
through the pulmonary artery to the capillaries in the walls 
of the air=cells, where the carbonic acid gas is given off and 
oxygen is taken on, thereby purifying or oxygenating the 
blood; from the lungs it is carried through the pulmonary 
veins into the left auricle; then it passes through the auriculo= 
ventricular opening into the left ventricle. 

178. Of what vessels does the systemic circulation consist? 

It consists of the aorta and its branches, the capillaries, 
and the veins that enter the right side of the heart. 

179. Where does it begin, and where does it end? 

It begins in the left ventricle, and ends in the right auri- 
cle. 

180. Describe the course of, and the changes that take place in, the blood in the 
systemic circulation. 

The blood passes from the left ventricle through the aorta 
and its branches to the capillaries in every part of the body, 
where nourishment is given to the tissues and waste is taken 
up; it tin u passes through the veins into the right auricle; 
from thence through the auriculo=ventriciilar opening into 
the right ventricle. 

181. What kind of blood do the arteries of the systemic circulation contain? 

They contain bright=red or pure blood. 

182. What kind of blood do the veins contain? 

They contain dark=blue or impure blood. 



584 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

183. When is all the blood in the body impure (venous) at death? 

In a case where death is caused by asphyxia. 

184. What kind of blood does the pulmonary artery contain? 

Impure or venous blood. 

185. What kind of blood do the pulmonary veins contain? 

Pure or arterial blood. 

186. Trace the blood from a given point through the entire circuit of the two cir- 
culations. 

Beginning at the left ventricle, it passes out through the 
aortic opening into and through the aorta and all of the 
branches, into and through the capillaries in the tissues; 
thence, through the veins to the right auricle; then through 
the auriculo=ventricular opening into the right ventricle; then 
through the pulmonary opening into and through the pul- 
monary artery to the capillaries in the walls of the ail -cells; 
thence through the pulmonary veins to left auricle; then, 
through the left auriculo=ventricular opening to left ventri- 
cle, the place of beginning. 

187. What is the fetal circulation? 

It is the circulation between the mother and unborn child, 
through the placenta and umbilical cord, by which the fetus 
receives nourishment. 

188. How many coats have arteries and veins? 

Each has three: an internal, serous; a middle, muscular; 
and an external, iibro=conneetive. 

189. What is the collateral circulation? 

The collateral circulation is a circulation at the side of the 
main vessels formed by the anastomoses of the smaller sub- 
divisions of the arterial branches; these anastomoses are ex- 
tensive throughout the body, so that blood may be carried 
from one part to another, after the main branch of the artery 
has been ligated, or destroyed by other means; the anasto- 
moses of the veins are much more 1 extensive than of the arter- 
ies. 

190. How are arteries and veins usually named? 

From the regions through which they pass or the organs 
to or from which they carry blood. 

191. What is the difference between veins and arteries in the extremities? 

Veins in the extremities have valves and the blood will 
not flow backward — that is, towards the fingers and toes — ; 
veins in the trunk, head, and neck have no valves; arrteries 
have no valves throughout their course. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 585 

192. What are the smallest arteries and veins called? 

The smallest arteries are called arterioles; the smallest 
veins are called venules. 

193. Describe the capillaries. 

They are a minute network of vessels formed through- 
out the tissues of the body between the arterioles and 
venules ; they are from 1/3000 to 1/6000 of an inch in diam- 
eter; they lie so closely packed together that to prick the 
skin with a small needle will wound or injure many of 
them; they inosculate freely and distribute the blood to 
the tissues as necessity demands; their walls have a single 
coat, a continuation of the serous or inner coat .of the 
arteries and veins ; it is- through these walls that nourish- 
ment is given off from the blood and the waste is taken up. 

ARTERIES. 

194. What is the main artery of the systemic circulation called? 

The aorta. 

195. Where does it begin and where does it end? 

It begins at the aortic opening of the heart, passing up- 
ward, thence, backward to the left side and the front of the 
back=hone, forming an arch, passing downward to the 
fourth lumbar vertebra, where it divides into the right and 
left common iliacs. 

196. How is it divided? 

It is divided into an arch, thence a straight portion which 
descends to the diaphragm, called the thoracic aorta ; then 
from the diaphragm to its division, called the abdominal 
aorta. 

197. What are the coronary arterie:? 

The coronary arteries are small branches that are given 
off from the aorta, just outside of the semilunar valves at the 
aortic opening, to supply the substance of the heart with 
nutrient or arterial blood. 

198. What branches are jriven off from the aortic arch? 

First, the innominate, which divides behind the junction 
of the clavicle and sternum into the common carotid and sub- 
clavian; second, the left common carotid; third, the left sub- 
clavian. 

199. What branches are given off from the thoracic aorta? 

Pericardiac, bronchial, esophageal, and 20 intercostals. 

200. What branches are given off from the abdominal aorta? 

Two phrenic, celiac axis, which divides into the gastric, 
hepatic, and splenic, superior and inferior mesenteric, two 
suprarenal, two renals, and two common iliacs. 



586 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

201. Describe the common carotids. 

The common carotid on the right side arises from the in- 
nominate, while that on the left is longer and deeper and 
arises from the arch of the aorta; they are separated only 
by the width of the trachea and they are each contained in 
a sheath accompanied by the internal jugular vein and pneu- 
mogastric nerve; they divide at the angles of the jaws into 
the external and internal carotids. 

202. Describe the external carotid. 

The external carotid ascends in front of the ear and 
divides into a number of branches which supply the tongue, 
face, pharynx, occipital region, temporal region, and the 
teeth; the branches of one side anastomose freely with those 
on the other. 

203. Describe the internal carotid. 

It ascends in front of the transverse processes of the up- 
per cervical vertebrae, follows the carotid canal in the temp- 
oral hone, and, after piercing the dura mater, divides into 
terminal branches, supplying all parts of the brain and its 
coverings. 

204. What are its principal branches? 

They are the anterior cerebral, which is joined to its fel- 
b w by the anterior communicating branch, which is about 
two lines in length; the middle cerebral, which divides into 
anterior, median, and posterior cerebral arteries; the 
posterior communicating. 

205. Describe the circle of Willis. 

It is an anastomosis at the base of the brain between the 
branches of the internal carotid and vertebral arteries, equal- 
izing the cerebral circulation; the two vertebral arteries join 
to form the basilar, which ends in the two posterior cerebral; 
these are connected with the internal carotid by the two 
posterior communicating; the circle is completed by the con- 
nection of the two anterior cerebral branches of the internal 
carotid through the short anterior communicating artery. 

206. Describe the subclavian. 

The right subclavian arises from the innominate at the 
junction of the collar=and breastbones ; the left from the arch 
of the aorta; they extend to the outer border of the first rib 
on either side, where they become the axillary arteries. 

207. What is the first branch given off from the subclavian? 

The first branch is the vertebral, which passes up the neck 
through the small foramina in the transverse processes of 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS ANT) ANSWERS 587 

the six cervical vertebrae, and enters the skull through the 
foramen magnum, where it joins its fellow to form the basilar 
artery, giving off branches that enter into the formation of 
the circle of Willis. 

208. Describe the internal mammary. 

The internal mammary is a branch which descends along 
the costal cartilages to the sixth interspace. 

209. Describe the axillary. 

The axillary artery is the continuation of the subclavian ; 
it extends from the outer border of the first rib to the lower 
margin of the axillary space, where it becomes the brachial. 

210. Describe the brachial. 

It is the continuation of the axillary from the lower bor- 
der of the armpit to where it divides into the radial and 
ulnar, which is usually one=half inch below the bend of the 
elbow. 

211. Describe the radial. 

It is a division of the brachial, extending from the bifur- 
cation to the deep palmar arch on the radial side of the fore- 
arm. 

212. Describe the ulnar. 

It is the other division of the brachial and extends along 
the ulnar side of the forearm of the superficial palmar arch. 

213. Describe the superficial palmar arch. 

It is that part of the ulnar artery in the palm of the hand 
which anastomoses with branches from the radial. 

214. Describe the deep palmar arch. 

It is that portion of the radial artery in the palm which 
anastomoses with a communicating branch of the ulnar. 

215. What arteries supply the fingers? 

The digital branches given off from the superficial pal- 
mar arch and by the radialis indicis. 

216. What arteries supply the lungs with nutrient blood? 

The bronchial arteries, which are branches of the thoracic 
aorta, and which vary in number and origin, being usually 
one on the right side and two on the left. 

217. Describe the intercostal arteries. 

They arc branches of the thoracic aorta, usually ten in 
number on each side ; they supply the upper intercostal spaces 
the spinal cord and tissues of the hack. 

218. Describe the phrenic arteries. 

They arc branches of the abdominal aorta and supply the 
under surface of the diaphragm. 



588 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

219. Describe the celiac axis. 

It is about one=half inch in length, arises from the aorta 
just beneath the diaphragm, and divides into the gastric, 
hepatic, and splenic art (Mies. 

220. What parts does the gastric artery supply? 

The pyloric end of the stomach, duodenum, pancreas, a 
part of the liver, and gall-bladder. 

221. What organ does the hepatic supply? 

The liver. 

222. What organs does the splenic supply? 

The spleen, pancreas, and large or splenic end of the 
stomach. 

223. What does the superior mesenteric supply? 

The small intestine, cecum, and ascending and transverse 
colon. 

224. What does the inferior mesenteric supply? 

The descending colon, sigmoid flexure, and most of the 
rectum. 

225. What do the suprarenal arteries supply? 

The suprarenal capsules. 

226. What crgar.s do the renals supply? 

The kidneys. 

227. What are the common iliacs? 

They are the bifurcating branches of the abdominal aorta, 
are about two inches long, and divide into the internal and 
external iliacs. 

228. What does the internal iliac supply? 

The walls and viscera of the pelvis and inner side of the 
thigh. 

229. Describe the external iliac. 

It extends to and beneath the center of Poupart's liga- 
ment, where it enters the thigh and becomes the femoral 
artery; its principal branch is the epigastric, which arises 
a short distance above Poupart's ligament. 

230. Describe the femoral 

It extends from Poupart's ligament to the opening in 
the adductor inagnus muscle, where it becomes the popliteal; 
its course corresponds to a line drawn from the center of 
Poupart's ligament to the inner side of the knee; it lies in 
a strong, fibrous sheath, with the femoral vein on tlie inside 
and the anterior crural nerve on the outside in the upper 
part of Scarpa's triangle; it lies superficial in the upper 
third of the thigh ; it £>ives off a number of branches which 
anastomose freely in all parts of the thigh, forming a per- 
feet collateral circulation. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 589 

231. What is its largest branch? 

Its largest branch is the profunda. 

232. Describe the popliteal. 

It is a continuation of the femoral and extends through 
the popliteal space behind the knee, at the lower border of 
which it divides into the anterior and posterior tibial, giv- 
ing off branches to the knee in its course. 

233. Describe the anterior tibial. 

It extends from the division of the popliteal to the front 
of the ankle=joint, where it becomes the dorsalis pedis ; it is 
superficial in its lower third, lying on the anterior and outer 
surface of the tibia. 

234. Describe the dorsalis pedis. 

It extends from the front of the ankle to the first inter- 
osseous space, where it terminates in the dorsalis hallucis 
and the communicating; it gives off branches to the front 
part of the foot and toes. 

235. Describe the posterior tibial. 

It extends from the division of the popliteal along the 
back of the tibia to the groove behind and below the internal 
ankle, where it divides into the internal and external plantar, 
giving off branches to the leg, heel, and sole of the foot. 

236. Describe the internal and external plantar. 

The internal plantar passes along the inner side of the 
foot and great toe; the external plantar passes obliquely, 
outward and forward, and at the base of the metatarsal bones 
inosculates with the communicating branches of the dorsalis 
pedis, forming the plantar arch; it gives off brandies to sup- 
ply the muscles on the outer part of the foot and the in- 
terosseous tissues, and three or four digital branches of the 

toes. 

VEINS. 

237. What are veins? 

Veins are vessels that carry the blood from the capil- 
laries to the auricles of the heart. 

238. Into how many classes are veins divided? 

They are divided into superficial and deep veins. 

239. Which are deep veins? 

Those beneath the fascia; they usually accompany the 
arteries. 

240. What are superficial veins? 

Those lying immediately beneath the skin in the areolar 

tissue. 



590 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

241. What ere -enc: corrites? 

They are two small veins which accompany secondary 
arteries in the same sheath. 

242. What are the two largest veins called? 

The superior or descending vena cava and the inferior or 
ascending vena cava. 

243. What vessels unite to form the superior vena cava? 

The ii uli t and left innominate veins. 

244. What vessels uni'.e to form the inferior vena cava? 

The right and left common iliac veins, which unite at the 
fourth lumbar vertebra. 

245. What are sinuses? 

They are large veins within the cranium and other parts 
of the body; in the brain their coats are farmed by duplica- 
tions of the dura mater. 

24G. Through what large veins is the blood carried from the cranial sinuses to 
the innominate veins? 

Through the internal jugulars. 

247. Through what large veins is the blood returned towards the heart from the 
external surfaces of the head and face? 

Through the internal, external, posterior, and anterior 
jugular veins. 

248. What vein accompanies the common carotid artery? 

The internal jugular, which lies on the outer side of the 
artery within the sheath. 

249. Name the principal veins of the upper extremities. 

The veins of the forearm are, first, the deep — venae 
comites; second, superficial — radial, ulnar, median, median 
cephalic, and median basilic (at the elbow); in the arm, 
deep — venae comites; superficial — cephalic on the outside of 
the arm, basilic near the brachial artery, axillary accom- 
panying the axillary artery, subclavian accompanying the 
subclavian artery. 

250. What are the principal veins of the lower part of the trunk and lower extremities? 

In the leg, deej) — vena' comites; superficial — external or 
short saphenous and internal or long saphenous; in the 
popliteal space, popliteal vein; in the thigh, deep — femoral 
vein and profunda branch, superficial — internal or long 
saphenous, which joins the femoral in Scarpa's triangle; in 
the lower part of the trunk, external and internal iliacs ac- 
companying the external and internal iliac arteries, and 
common iliacs, which accompany the common iliac arteries, 
and join to form the inferior vena cava. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 591 

251. What is the portal circulation? 

It is an appendage of the venous portion of the systemic 
circulation. 

252. What veins form the portal system? 

The inferior and superior mesenteric, splenic, and gastric 
veins form the portal vein, which carries the blood from the 
intestines, spleen, and stomach to the liver. 

II.— EMBALMING. 

253. What is embalming? 

Embalming is the filling of a body with a preservative 
and disinfectant fluid. 

254. What are the chief reasons for embalming? 

The chief reasons are those of preservation and disin- 
fection. 

255. To preserve a body only, what kind of fluid should be injected? 

A fluid containing antiseptics is all that is necessary. 

256. To disinfect as well as preserve, what kind of fluid should be injected? 

A fluid containing, strong disinfectants should be used. 

257. Why is preservation desired? 

Preservation is desired only for the present, to keep the 
body in a natural condition and prevent the usual bad odors 
that accompany putrefaction, during the mourning period 
or until interment. 

258. Why is disinfection desired? 

In all cases dying of contagious and infectious diseases, 
di si nf ection is desired to prevent dissemination of the disease. 

259. How soon after death should the body be embalmed? 

As soon as possible after the arteries are empty. 

260. Why? 

If blood is to be removed it should be done before coagu- 
lation lakes place; the tissues can be. filled much more readi- 
ly when rigor mortis is absent, when the} T are flaccid. 

261. When is it necessary to withdraw blood from the heart or veins? 

In all full=blooded bodies, and in all bodies during hot 
weather, it is a good practice; while in septicemia and 
pyemia it is necessary because the blood is full of the putre- 
factive bacteria and for the purpose of enlarging the space 
for the reception of a greater amount of fluid, in order to 
destroy the bacteria that are in the tissues of all parts of the 
body, 



592 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

262. What are the nutrient fluids of the body? 

They are the blood, lymph, and chyle; but the blood is 
the most important to the embalmer. 

263. Why is the blood the most important fluid to the embalmer? 

Because it is the chief source of discolorations, and putre- 
factive changes take place in it very soon after death, especi- 
ally in hot weather. 

264. How would you fill the body with fluid? 

As a rule, by raising an artery and filling the capillaries 
in all parts of the body through the systemic circulation; 
also filling the cavities, especially the respiratory tract, 
alimentary canal, and serous sacs, through the hollow=needle. 

265. Why is it necessary to fill the cavities? 

To sterilize the contents. 

266. Is there a possibility of the circulation being destroyed in certain cases? 

Yes; in old people, on account of the presence of athero- 
ma; in cases of post=mortem examination; in railroad or 
other severe accidents; and in some cases by the arteries 
not being emptied after death. 

267. If the circulation is destroyed, how would you fill the tissues? 

By tying the arteries or by injecting fluid through the 
hollow=needle into the cellular and deeper tissues through- 
out the. upper surfaces of the body. 

268. What is death? 

Death is the cessation of physical life. 

269. What are the modes of death? 

Cessation of the functions of the heart, cessation of the 
functions of the lungs, cessation of the functions of the brain; 
the latter is an indirect mode as it. ultimately affects either 
the heart or the lungs. 

270. What conditions simulate death? 

Syncope, asphyxia, and trance. 

271. Is there a single, early, positive sign of death? 

No; a number of signs should be taken together. 

272. Give tests to determine when the heart has ceased to act. 

First, place the ear or stethoscope over the heart to 
gather sounds; second, apply a ligature around a finger or 
toe to see if the distal end will become swollen or discolored; 
third, open a, dependent artery to see if it contains blood. 
If no sounds are gathered, and no swelling or discolorations 
appear, and the artery is found empty, all are signs that the 
heart has ceased to. act. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS . 593 

873. Give tests to determine when respiration has ceased. 

The application of a cold mirror over the month will con- 
dense the moisture in the air when respiration is going on ; 
a flock of cotton applied to the mouth or nose will move to 
and fro if respiration continues ; the placing of a cup of water 
upon the chest will determine whether the chest is heaving 
or not. 

274. Name other signs of death. 

If the skin is stretched it will not readily resume its nor- 
mal position; if burned with a match or hot iron, it will not 
blister ; opaqueness of the cornea ; great pallor of the surface 
of the body; if, in cutting or puncturing the tissues, the 
wound remains open ; reduction of occular tension ; the flat- 
tening of the surface when pressure is removed; coldness of 
the surface; the presence of post=mortem discolorations and 
staining, which come on usually in eight or ten hours after 
death; and rigor mortis, all indicate the presence of death; 
the last and only certain sign, putrefaction, which shows 
about the third day in an ordinary case in an average tem- 
perature. 

275. What change takes place in the blood after death that prevents its removal? 

Coagulation. 

276. How soon after death does coagulation usually take place? 

As a rule, in from 12 to 24 hours ; it may occur sooner in 
some diseases, while it may be retarded to a much longer 
period in others. 

277. Can coagulated blood be removed from the veins or heart? 

No; it neither can be dissolved nor withdrawn from the 
heart or veins. 

278. What portion of the entire weight of the body is blood? 

About one-tenth. 

279. When covrsing through the vessels, about how much of the blood is required to 

fill the arteries and capillaries? 

About one-half, the remainder being in the veins. 

280. When injecting the arteries, what vessels do we aim to fill? 

The arteries and capillaries of the systemic circulation. 

281. That being the case, how much fluid should be injected into the arterial system 

to fill the tissues? 

A quantity equal l<> aboul one=half of the blood or about 
1 I'll of tin- weight of the body, or one pound to each twenty 

pounds' weight of the body. 

282. In what condition are the arteries found after death? 

They are usually found empty. 



594 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

283. What causes them to be empty? 

Postmortem contraction of the heart and arteries, which 
begins at the heart and ends at the arterioles. 

284. When does this contraction take place? 

It usually comes on and passes off within an hour or two 
after death, but, being a tonic contraction, it may last for a 
much longer period; one case on record shows that it lasted 
36 hours. 

285. Does this contraction ever interfere with the filling of the arteries? 

Sometimes tin 1 contraction will last for sonic hours after 
death, and, when the artery is raised, it is found so small that 
the tube will scarcely enter and only a very small amount of 
fluid can be injected. 

286. What should be done when the arteries are contracted? 

Wait until their walls relax, when they can be filled 
easily. 

287. Where is the blood usually found after death? 

After the arteries are emptied it is found in the deep and 
dependent veins. 

288. How should the body be placed while being injected? 

It should be placed on an incline with the lower extremi- 
ties and lower part of the trunk lower than the head. 

289. In what order will the different parts of the body be filled? 

When the fluid is injected slowly, the lower extremities 
and lower part of the trunk will till first; then the upper 
portion of the trunk, neck, head, and face last. 

290. If too little fluid is injected, what will be the reuslt? 

If too little fluid is injected, the lower parts of the body 
receive it, while the neck, face, and head receive none; there- 
fore, these parts are first discolored and the features changed 
in many cases. 

291. Does the fluid reach the cavities of the heart? 

Not unless the valves are diseased or injured. 

292. Does the fluid ever reach the right side of the heart? 

Not unless the fluid makes the whole circuit of the sys- 
temic circulation, in arterial injection, or by one of the needle 
processes. 

293. Why are arteries injected instead of veins? 

Arteries are usually empty of blood, while veins are never 
empty; arteries, if injected when empty, will not cause flush- 
ing, while veins, if injected, will cause flushing; arteries have 
no valves, while veins in the extremities are full of valves 
which would prevent fluid from entering the extremities. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 595 

294. What tissues are cut through in raising an artery? 

The skin, fat, and cellular, or superficial fascia and deep 
fascia. 

295. How do you raise an artery? 

By making a cut through the skin on the guide line long 
enough to expose a sufficient length of the artery; scrape 
away the fat ; raise the fascia on the grooved=director and 
incise it with the curved, sharp=pointed bistoury ; raise the 
sheath upon the handle or shank of the aneurism=needle ; open 
it with the scissors or scalpel, and separate the artery from 
the vein or veins and nerve; pass a double thread underneath 
the artery ; incise the wall of the artery ; and insert and tie 
in the arterial tube. 

296. How would you incise the wall of an artery? 

Kaise it out of the wound and place it upon the shank or 
handle of the aneurism=needle ; then make a cut in its long- 
axis with the curved bistoury or scisscrs. 

297. Why make the cut in its long axis? 

Because it will not weaken the artery, while the trans- 
verse or diagonal cut impairs the walls and a little force is 
liable to tear the vessel in two. 

298. In what direction would you insert the arterial-tube? 

With the nozzle toward the heart. 

299. Could fluid be injected with the nozzle directed from the heart? 

Yes; but too much fluid might be injected into the distal 
end of the extremity in which the artery is raised, causing 
discoloration and a distorted appearance. 

300. If the arteries are full of blood, what would you do? 

Wait until post=mortem contraction takes place to empty 
them; or raise the femoral artery and place the body well on 
the incline, tie in a drainage=tube and let the blood drain out, 
which frequently will stimulate the walls of the arteries to 
contraction; after the blood is drained out, inject the 
arteries. 

301. What effect would it have on the surface of the body to inject the arteries when 

full of blood? 

If soon after death, the surface would be flushed red, as a 
rule, in all diseases, except asphyxia. 

302. Is the blood in the arteries always pjre or arterial? 

No; in ease of asphyxia there is no arterial blood in the 
body, the blood in both the arteries and veins being impure 
or venous. 

303. In a case of death from asphyxia when the arteries are full, what color would 
the flushing of the surface be? 

If the arteries were injected it would be of a dark=blue 

or venous color. 



596 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

304. If you were by mistake to inject a vein for an artery, what effect would it have on 
the surface of the body? 

It would flush it a dark=blue or venous color. 

305. Which arteries are usually raised for embalming purposes? 

Brachial, femoral, carotid, radial, and posterior tibial. 

306. Is one artery better than another? 

No; if an artery is large enough to receive the arterial^ 
tube, it is as good as any other artery. 

307. If blood is to be withdrawn through the vein, which artery should be raised? 

Either the brachial, which has the basilic vein near it; 
the femoral, which is accompanied by the femoral vein; or 
the carotid, which is accompanied by the internal jugular. 

308. Is the carotid any better for injection than the brachial or femoral? 

No; there is no reason why it should be raised in prefer- 
cure to either the brachial or femoral; and there are no good 
reasons why either of them should be avoided. 

309. Where are the brachial artery and basilic vein located? 

They are located on the inner side of the arm in the 
groove between the biceps and triceps muscles, the vein lying 
to the inner side of the artery and usually nearer the surface. 

310. Give the anatomical and linear guides to the brachial artery. 

The anatomical guide is the inner border of the biceps 
muscle; the linear guide is the line drawn from the center of 
the armpit to the center of the elbow, when the palm of the 
hand is tinned upward and the arm placed at right angles 
with body. 

311. What vessels and nerve accompany the brachial artery within the sheath? 

The venae comites and median nerve, the artery always 
lying beneath the nerve, in the middle third of the arm. 

312. When you raise the brachial artery through what vein would you remove blood? 

Through the basilic vein, using a tube that is of sufficient 
length to reach the right auricle of the heart, and is of a 
caliber that will readily pass through the vein. 

313. Does it make any difference which arm is used when blood is to be withdrawn 
through the basilic vein? 

No; as the tube can be passed through the vein of one 
arm as well as the other; when the right is used, if the end 
of the tube is checked in the neck, a little pressure in the 
hollow above the inner end of the clavicle will start it down 
through the innominate vein. 

314. Why should the carotids be avoided? 

Because they lie deep and the mutilation is extensive, 
especially in fleshy persons, and is readily exposed ; blood can 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 597 

be withdrawn directly from the heart or through either the 
basilic or femoral vein just as easily as through the internal 
jugular. 

315. When is it best to raise the radial or tibial artery? 

\Yhen the body is already dressed ; in this case, blood can 
be withdrawn, if necessary, from the heart by the direct 
operation. 

316. What do you find in the sheath with the artery? 

Always one or two veins and sometimes a nerve. 

317. How do you discriminate between an artery, vein, and nerve? 

An artery is usually empty, cylindrical in form, of a 
creamy=white appearance and somewhat firm to the touch, 
owing to the heavier walls. A vein, if deep, usually contains 
blood ; if so, it has a bluish appearance ; it is collapsed and 
has a soft velvety feel, owing to its thinner walls ; if empty, 
its color is similar to that of an artery. The nerve is white, 
hard, dense in structure; is never hollow. Arteries are con- 
tained in sheaths, always accompanied by one or more veins ; 
when accompanied by two veins the veins are usually of 
small size; superficial veins are never within a sheath, and 
lie near the surface. 

318. Where are the femoral artery and vein located? 

In the thigh. 

319. What superficial vein lies to the inner side of the femoral artery? 

The internal or long saphenous, which is often mistaken 
for the artery. 

320. Through what triangle does the artery pass in its descent through the thigh? 

Scarpa's triangle; it enters the triangle at center of the 
base, passing through to the apex, in which it lies nearest the 
surface. 

321. Give the anatomical and linear guides to the femoral artery. 

The anatomical guide is the inner border of the satorius 
or tailor's muscle; the linear guide is a line drawn from the 
center of POupart's Ligament to the inner side of the knee 
when the foot is turned out. 

322. How would you withdraw blood from the femoral vein? 

The vein should be raised and opened and a drainage=tube 
of sufficient length inserted to reach above the bifurcation of 
the common iliac vein, through which the blbod will drain 
when the body is placed well on the incline. 

323. Give the anatomical and linear guides to the common carotid artery. 

The anatomical guide is Hie front border of the sterno- 
cleidomastoid muscle; the linear guide is the line drawn from 



598 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

the mastoid process downward and forward to the junction 
of the clavicle and sternum. 

324. Give the guide to the radial artery. 

The guide is the groove on the radical side of the arm 
between the first prominent tendon and the outer edge of the 
radius, where the doctor takes the pulse=rate. 

325. Give the guide to the anterior tibial. 

The guide to the anterior tibial is tin- outer side of the 
front border of the lower end of the tibia. 

326. What is the guide to the posterior tibial? 

Tbe guide to the posterior tibial is the groove behind and 
beneath the internal malleolus (ankle). 

327. In what position would you place the body after embalming? 

Upon a level, with the head but slightly elevated, so as to 
prevent the fluid from draining out of the upper portions of 
the body. 

328. What methods are used for withdrawing the blood? 

Either by the direct operation upon the heart or through 
one of the larger veins. 

329. In the direct method at what point should the needle be introduced? 

If blood is to be withdrawn from the right auricle by the 
direct method, the point of the needle should be inserted in 
the third intercostal space, close to the margin of the breast= 
bone on the right side, and directed straight back toward the 
right of the center of the back=bone, to avoid wounding the 
great aorta. 

330. Does the direct operation destroy the circulation? 

To puncture the right auricle does not destroy the circu- 
lation for the injection of the fluid; when the circulation is 
destroyed it is usually the unfortunate wounding of the great 
aorta by directing the point of needle to left of the center of 
the baek=bone. 

331. What effect does heat have on the blood? 

It coagulates it. 

332. What effect does freezing have on the blood? 

It prevents coagulation; the blood will not coagulate as 
long as it remains frozen. 

333. How much blood can be withdrawn from the body? 

That depends, as a rule, upon the size of the body and the 
disease; in some cases only a few ounces can be removed, 
while in others the quantity is large, being as much as four 
quarts ; ordinarily only one pint to two or three quarts can 
be withdrawn. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 599 

334. Why do we practice cavity embalming? 

To sterilize the contents of the different subdivisions of 
the abdominal and thoracic cavities, especially the contents 
of the alimentary canal and respiratory tract. 

335. What parts of the cavities should be filled in all cases? 

The pleural and peritoneal sacs, the alimentary canal, 
and the respiratory tract. 

336. Can a body be preserved and disinfected thoroughly by cavity injection? 

Xo ; the fluid will only reach the cavities and sterilize the 
contents, or settling down through the tissues, will possibly 
sterilize the tissues of the back of the trunk. 

337. Will cavity injection alone preserve the body? 

It will aid in preserving some bodies temporarily, as 
putrefaction will not take place to a great extent, for some 
days, in the outer soft tissues, especially while rigor mortis 
is present. 

338. Which is the best point to insert the hollow-needle for relieving the cavities of 
gases and fulling them with fluid? 

If only one point is selected, it should be in the epigas- 
trium as the needle can be directed through the diaphragm 
close to the ribs and over the lungs into the pleural sacs, and 
through the peritoneal sac to all parts of the abdominal 
cavity, always bearing in mind the location of the aorta and 
heart; these should not be punctured under any circum- 
stances. 

339. In what organs are gases usually formed in the abdominal cavity? 

^\'l i <-n a large quantity of gas is present it is usually 
formed in the large intestine; in certain diseases, as in peri- 
tonitis, it may be formed in the peritoneum; there is always 
more or less gas in the small intestine. 

340. In opening the ?bdominal cavity, where should the incision be made? 

Through (he linea alba (white line) in the center of the 
front wall, where there will be no danger of cutting through 
an artery. 

341. How do you inject fluid through the respiratory tract? 

By using an inelastic, steel nasal=tube, long enough, when 
introduced through the nose or mouth, to pass through the 
glottis; the end of the tube can be felt through the front wall 
of the larynx, or Adam's apple; fluid should then be injected 
through the tube; or a hollow=nee<lle may be inserted at a 
point immediately above the upper end of breast-bone, 
through I'ronl wall of trachea, through which fluid can be in- 
jected. 



COO CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

342. Should fluid be injected into the left ventricle through the hollow-needle? 

No; because you will have no assurance that the needle 
has entered the proper cavity of the heart ; it will he like 
groping in the dark and the results are likely to be disastrous; 
as n practical method, certainly no embalmer would recom- 
mend it. 

343. When and by whom was the needle process introduced? 

It was introduced in 1884 by the late Dr. Benjamin Ward 
Richardson, of London, England; he injected through the 
cranial cavity by introducing the needle through the apex of 
the eye-socket into the spaces at the base of the brain. 

344. Do the needle processes take the place of arterial embalming? 

Xo ; as an auxiliary the needle processes are useful, hut 
should not he depended upon alone as a method of injecting 
ordinary bodies. 

345. Which is the best method of introducing the needle into the cranial cavity? 

Through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone at the 
root of nose ; the needle can be so introduced easily, and there 
will be no leakage after its removal. 

346. Should the right side of the heart be tapped if either of the needle processes is 
used ? 

It should not ; because there will be leakage into the medi- 
astinal space, on account of the principal part of the fluid 
passing downward through the veins. 

347. What is putrefaction? 

Putrefaction is the separating of the constituent elements 
of the body, due to the presence and growth of bacteria. 

348. In what bodies does putrefaction progress most rapidly? 

Those dead from drowning, septicemia., child=birth, and 
dropsical cases. 

349. Under what conditions will putrefaction progress most rapidly? 

In a warm temperature, from 80° to 100° P., when 
moisture is present. 

350. What will retard putrefaction? 

A cold temperature, a high altitude, deep water, and 
earth. 

351. What will prevent putrefaction? 

Freezing; a high, dry temperature; the presence of an 
an1 isrptic 

352. Name the putrefactive gases of a body. 

Sulphureted and carbureted hydrogen, carbonic acid, am- 
monium, etc. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS . 601 

353. How are gases generated in the body? 

Gases are generated during putrefaction and are due to 
the presence and growth of bacteria. 

354. How prevent the generation of gasses? 

By destroying the bacteria or preventing their growth. 

355. What causes purging from the mouth and nose? 

Putrefaction of the contents of the stomach or lungs, or 
of the lung-substance itself. 

356. How would you determine whether purging is from stomach or from lungs? 

The matter from the stomach is usually of a brownish, 
coffee=ground appearance, and has a peculiar smell ; that from 
the lungs is of a bloody, frothy character, and has essentially 
a putrefactiye smell. 

357. How would you stop purging from the stomach? 

By tapping the stomach with a hollo w=needle and reliev- 
ing it of gases and injecting fluid before removing the trocar ; 
then puncturing the intestines, relieving them of gasses and 
injecting fluid before removing the instrument. 

358. How would you stop purging from the lungs? 

In an ordinary case the body may be turned and all of 
the matter may be pressed out that is possible ; then inject 
fluid through the respiratory tract ; if it is an obstinate case, 
the lungs should be mutilated, and fluid injected into the 
tissues direct through the hollow=needle ; the mutilation may 
be made with the hollow=needle or the scalpel, by cutting 
tli rough the intercostal spaces over the front of the chest. 
If the mutilation is thorough and the lung=substance filled 
with fluid, it will stop the purging completely. 

359. Does the mutilation of the lungs interfere with arterial embalming? 

As it occurs some hours after the body is embalmed arter- 
ial ly it will not matter whether the circulation be destroyed 
or not. 

360. Should the respiratory tract be closed to prevent purging from the lungs? 

Xo ; never close the throat or tie the trachea, in obstinate 1 
cases, as putrefaction will continue and gases will be formed 
which will pass out through the tissues and swell the surface 
of the body. 

361. What is "skin-slip," and what causes it? 

Skin=slip is ;i slipping of the cuticle, due to (he softening 
of the rete muscosum or pigment layer of the skin; this oc- 
curs in putrefaction and also in cases in which there is a 
superabundance of water present in the tissues, as in heart, 
liver, and kidney diseases. 



602 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

362. How may skin-slip be prevented? 

Iii a case where putrefaction lias progressed to any great 
degree or in one of dropsy — That is, where there is an increase 
of l lie normal quantity of water in the tissues — a strong 
formaldehyde fluid should be used; as formaldehyde gas has 
a great affinity for water, and is also a great hardener of 
tissues, it will reach the parts directly, hardening the tissues 
and preventing skin=slip. 

263. What is post-mortem discolor?tion? 

It is the settling of the blood into the dependent portions 
of hodv, as seen along hack of trunk eight to ten hours after 
death.' 

364. What is post-mortem staining? 

In post=niorteni staining there has been a reduction of 
the red corpuscles and the hemoglobin or coloring matter has 
been eliminated from them, passing out through the walls 
of the vessels into the tissues, leaving a permanent stain of 
a brigiit=pink color. 

365. Can post-mortem staining be removed by bleachers? 

Xo ; it cannot he removed by the application of bleachers 
in any manner. 

366. Can post-mortem discoloration be removed? 

Yes; as the discoloration is due to the presence of blood 
in the vessels near the surface, by changing the position of 
the body, the blood will gravitate to other parts. 

367. Can discoloration be removed by the application, of bleachers to the surface when 
applied in the usual manner? 

Xo; if bleachers are applied they should he covered with 
rubber or oiled=silk, so that the air will not absorb the mois- 
ture if applied in this manner, good results may be obtained. 

368. If the blood is coagulated can the dark discoloration be removed from the face 
and upper portions of the body? 

If it is only coagulated in the larger A T essels, and not 
firmly in the capillaries, it can be removed by the application 
of ice and salt, or by rubbing and pressure; but, if firmly 
coagulated in the capillaries, nothing will remove it; 
bleachers placed on the outside are of no avail under any 
circumstances. 

369. What discolorations appear on the surface as a result of death? 

Congestion of the face and capillaries, post=inortem dis- 
coloration, post=mortem staining, greenish discoloration or 
putrefaction, and brownish or grayish spots. 

370. What other discolorations may be present at death? 

Discolorations resulting from the various diseases — as in 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 603 

cancer, Brigkt's disease, etc., — jaundice, ecchymotic spots, as 
a result of purpura, Addison's and other diseases, bruises, 
etc. 

371. How can small greenish, brownish, or grayish spots be removed? 

By the injection hypodermic-ally of the following- solu- 
tion : bichlorid of mercury, 10 grains ; pure alcohol, 4 ounces ; 
mix; inject a few drops underneath the skin of the part in- 
volved. 

372. How should a bleacher be applied externally to make it e^Tertive? 

It should be applied by moistening a folded cloth, lintine, 
or absorbent cotton, which should be placed over the part to 
be bleached, and covered with a piece of rubber or oiled=silk 
to prevent air from absorbing the moisture. 

373. Can the discoloration known as jaundice be removed? 

No; it can be modified by filling the tissues through the 
arterial system with a good fluid. 

374. What causes the surface of a body to be dark in a drowned case? 

Death is due to asphyxia, and, therefore, the blood is all 
venous, of a dark=blue color; it is slow to coagulate in cold 
water, and should be removed at once by the direct operation 
upon the heart or through a vein. 

375. How would you treat a floater? 

If the cuticle is shredded, thoroughly wash the surface, 
nibbing away the cuticle; then raise the femoral or some 
other artery and inject a large quantity of fluid ; then fill the 
cavities and inject through the liollow=needle over the upper 
surfaces of the body in the cellular and deep tissues. A large 
amount of fluid (at least three or four gallons) should be in- 
jected into a body of medium weight. 

376. In what kind of a room should a jaundiced body be placed and how prepared? 

1 1 should be placed in a dark room and artificial light 
should lie reflected upon the parts exposed, as the face, neck, 
and hands; this will give the body a very natural appear- 
ance. 

377. What is the color of all of the blood in a body when death is caused by illumina- 
ting gas? 

1 1 is ;i \ cry dark=blnisli color. 

378. What is the color of the blood when death is caused by charcoal gas (carbonic 
oxid) ? 

1 1 is of ,-i bright=cherry= red color. 

379. What is the first thing necessary to do in a case of asphyxia? 

The body should be placed high on the incline, and blood 
should he withdrawn as quickly as possible to relieve the 



604 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

peripheral veins and capillaries of congestion, which causes 
discoloration of the surface. 

380. What is always necessary in the treatment of a case of consumption? 

To till the lungs through the respiratory tract, and the 
mediastinal space and pleural cavities; otherwise the body 
should be treated in the usual manner. 

381. How would you inject the pleural cavities in tuberculosis? 

If the lungs arc not adhered to the front wall of the chest, 
introduce the hollow=needle from the hypogastrium ; if they 
are adhered, the needle should he introduced between the 
second and third ribs on either side at a point about four or 
five inches from the breastbone; then aspirate as much of 
the contents as is possible, and till the lungs with fluid, which 
will sterilize the remaining contents. 

382. In a case of general dropsy, how remove the water? 

Remove it from the peritoneum either by introducing the 
needle in the hypogastrium or at a point in the middle of the 
body just above the pubic arch and aspirate it; insert the 
needle in the pleural cavities in the usual manner and as- 
pirate; to remove from the upper and lower extremities in- 
cise or puncture the skin underneath in many places, and 
apply a strong rubber bandage made of rubber webbing, 
known as Esmareh's bandage. 

383. How would you treat a case in which an autopsy has been held? 

If the autopsy has included the thoracic and abdominal 
cavities only, the arteries leading to the extremities, as well 
as those leading to the head and neck, should be tied and 
fluid injected into the upper extremities, head, and neck, 
by raising the brachial artery and tying the tube into it, or 
tying the tube into one of the severed ends, such as the in- 
nominate, left common carotid, or left subclavian. In the 
lower extremities tie the tube into the iliacs and inject toward 
the feet; then cleanse the cavities, wiping them dry; sprinkle 
hardening compound freely over the inside and cover each 
of the organs as it is replaced, finally, cover freely with the 
powder and stitch the edges of the incision together; then 
inject fluid directly into the tissues of the trunk through 
the hollow=needle. 

384. How would you treat a body with the calvarium (skullcap) removed? 

Place the body in a sitting posture; raise an artery at 
some point and inject very slowly until all parts of the body, 
including the neck and base of the skull, are filled; then re- 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 605 

place the contents, covering the same with dessicating or 
hardening compound; then replace the skullcap and stitch 
the scalp, and inject fluid into the tissues of the scalp through 
the hollow=needle. 

385. What is the color of the blood in a body dead from sunstroke? 

Death is caused by coma, which ultimately stops respira- 
tion while the heart is still performing its function, resulting 
in asphyxia ; the blood is all venous, which gives a dark color 
to the tissues of the body. 

386. How would you treat a case of death from sunstroke? 

Place the body on a high incline so that all the blood that 
is possible can be withdrawn ; then fill the tissues and cavi- 
ties thoroughly with fluid, using a larger amount than in an 
ordinary case, as there is a tendency to rapid putrefaction. 

387. What is the color and condition of the blood in a body dying of pneumonia in 
the early stages? 

It is a dark color, due to the interference with respiration 
which results in only partial oxygenation of the blood ; in 
some cases respiration will entirely cease while the heart 
continues to beat for a short period, which sends the blood 
thnough the lungs without aeration ; it coagulates sooner 
than in an ordinary case. 

388. What is the color and condition of the blood in a body dying of pneumonia in the 
later stages? 

It is not necessarily of a dark color, as aeration may be 
sufficient to relieve the blood of the waste, or carbonic acid 
gas, and it will be found much thinner and less prone to 
coagulation than if death had occurred in the early stages. 

389. What should be dore in a case of consumption or other diseases of the lungs 
should there be leakage of the fluid from the mouth and nose? 

(lose the pharynx with a tampon or pledgets of cotton 
and continue the injection of fluid until all of the tissues are 
tilled; the leakage is caused by rupture of the bronchial 
arteries in the cavities within the lungs. 

390. How would you embalm a body dead of fr'r-shot wounds? 

Ft depends on the parts involved; if the ball has pene- 
trated I he head, the hole or holes in the skull may be firmly 
closed by the use of plaster of Paris, putty, or some other 
similar substance, and the injection proceed as in any other 
case. If the aorta and other large vessels are mutilated, 
they should be lied and the injection follow; then the blood 
and other liquid substances should be removed and a good 
dessicating or hardening compound should be used freely. 



GOf> champion text-book on embalming 

391. How would you treat a case with the throat cut? 

If both carotids are cut, by tying three <>f the free ends. 
and inserting and tying the tube in the fourth free end with 
the nozzle toward the heart; then attach the pump and in- 
ject as in any other case. 

392. Will fluid reach t'-e head and neck by injecting in this manner? 

Yes; it will reach the head and neck through the vertebral 
arteries, which, with the carotids, form the circle of AVillis. 
by anastomoses, from which vessels reach every part above 
the wound. 

393. In what diseases is the operator in great danger of blood-poisoning. 

Erysipelas, septicemia, syphilis, diphtheria, and bodies 
recently dead of many other diseases. 

394. Is it very dangerous to handle a body in which putrefaction has taken place ex- 
tensively? 

No; it is less dangerous than in a fresh one. 

395. How would you treat a wound received while operating on a body.' 

Make it bleed freely and cauterize with carbolic acid or 
some other cauterizer. 

396. If you have abra'i^ns, hangnails, or cracks on the hands, how would you protect 
yourself while operating? 

By the use of rubber gloves or tingei-cots, or covering the 
hands with "hand protector" or carbolized vaseline. 

397. What is an anomaly? 

An anomaly is a deviation from the rule, type, or form; 
irregularity; anything abnormal or contrary to analogy. 

398. What is an anomalous condition of an artery? 

It is an artery that is irregular in its form, division, or 
course, as is found often in the brachial artery. 

399. What is an abnormal condition? 

A deviation from the natural stricture, division, or 
course; unnatural; irregular, as an abnormal development of 
an organ. 

400. What is a malformation? 

It is any congenital irregularity in the formation or 
development of parts in an organism. 

401. How can blood be removed from the cranial cavity? 

If the blood is within the vessels and not coagulated, the 
body should be placed high on the incline in order to gravi- 
tate the blood to the trunk. 

402. If it is coagulated in the crarial cavity can it be removed? 

No; not by any process known unless the skullcap were 
removed, which is not practical. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 607 

403. Is it ever necessary to remove blood from the brain cavity? 

It is scarcely necessary unless the operator wishes to 
remove the pressure upon the vessels. 

404. Are either of the needle processes practical for this purpose? 

No ; if there is hemorrhage in the subarachnoid spaces, an 
extremely small amount may be withdrawn in this way, but 
not sufficient to amount to anything. 

405. Can blood be removed from a drowned case having been in the water for some 
length of time? 

Yes, if not coagulated; if coagulated, it cannot be re- 
moved. 

406. What effect does the water have upon the blood in a drowned caser 

Unless mixed with the blood, it retards coagulation. 

407. What is the mode of death in a case of drowning? 

Death through the lungs, or asphyxia. 

408. As a rule, what effect has asphyxia upon coagulation? 

It retards coagulation. 

III.— SANITATION AND DISINFECTION. 

409. What are bacteria? 

The}* are the lowest forms of plant or vegetable life. 

410. Where are bacteria found? 

Everywhere, except in mid=ocean and in the highest alti- 
tudes, where no moisture is present. 

411. There are how many general forms of bacteria? 

Three: micrococci (cocci), split rical=shaped; bacilli, 
rod=shaped ; spirilla, spiral=shaped. 

412. What bacteria interest the embalmer most? 

Those of putrefaction and those of infection. 

413. What kind of bacteria cause disease? 

Infectious or pathogenic bacteria. 

414. What kind cause decomposition of the body? 

Putrefactive or nonpathogenic bacteria. 

415. Between what degrees of temperature will bacteria grow? 

Between 32 and 120 to 130° V. 

416. At what temperature will they grow most rapidly? 

Aboul the norma] heal of the body. 

417. What agents prevent their growth.' 

Antisepl ics. 

418. What agents destroy them? 

Disinfectants. 



608 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

419. Define an antiseptic. 

Aii antiseptic is an agent or body that will prevent the 
growth of bacteria when present, without of necessity killing 
them; it is only a preservative. 

420. Define a disinfectant. 

A disinfectant is an agent or body that will kill bacteria; 
it is also a preservative. 

421. Name some disinfectants. 

Bichlorid of mercury, 1:1000 or 1:500; carbolic acid, 5 
to 10 per cent.; chlorid of lime, six ounces to the gallon; 
sulphur fnnies ; formaldehyde gas; tire; moist and dry heat 
(230° F.) ; and boiling water/ 

422. What is a deodorizer? 

A deodorizer is an agent or body that destroys odor 
either by absorption or covering it with a stronger odor. 

423. Name same good deodorizers. 

Bichlorid of mercury, chlorid of lime, etc. 

424. What should a good fluid contain? 

Disinfectants sufficiently strong to destroy all bacteria in 
the body, especially those producing the disease which caused 
death; the fluid should not destroy the appearance of the 
body, if used in a case where a private or public funeral is 
to be held, or which is to be exposed to view in any manner. 

425. What is infection? 

It is a poisonous matter that contains infectious or 
pathogenic bacteria. 

426. When is a disease said to be infectious only? 

When the infection is taken into the body by inoculation, 
or through the food we eat, or the water we drink, or the air 
we breathe, — as bacteria, when dry, may be carried in the air. 

427. Name some diseases which are infectious only. 

Pneumonia, grip, malaria, cholera, etc. 

428. What is contagion? 

It is poisonous matter containing infectious bacteria, 
which can be communicated by contact from the sick to the 
well. 

429. When is a disease said to be contagious? 

When it is communicable from one person to another, by 
direct contact or through the surrounding air at no great 
distance. 

430. What kind of diseases are smallpox, scarlatina, whooping-cough, and measles? 

They are both contagious and infectious. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 609 

131. What is the object in embalming a contagious or infectious disease? 

To prevent the dissemination of the disease. 

432. Should a public funeral be held in a contagious case? 

No. 

"33. What rules should govern the funeral director in handling a contagious case? 

The rules adopted by the State and local health boards 
under whose jurisdiction he is doing business. 

434. Should bodies be embalmed that are dead of contagious or infectious diseases that 
are to be buried at once? 

For preservation merely it is not necessary, but as a 
sanitary measure, all should be embalmed. 

435. What is formaldehyde gas? 

It is a product of \vood=alcohol produced by heating ; it is 
not a commercial product in the form of gas; it is freighted 
and sold only in the form of a solid, called paraform, which 
is of 100 per cent, strength, or in liquid form having a 
strength of 40 per cent., called formalin, formol, or formalde- 
hyde ; the gas is produced for use by dissolving the paraform 
by heat or by the distillation of the gas from formalin. 

436. How would you disinfect a room and its contents? 

By closing the cracks in the room as tightly as possible, 
separating hangings upon the walls, hanging up bed=clothing 
and other material upon lines stretched across the room, 
opening wide all drawers and doors of closets, hanging up 
their contents, separating the clothing, and everything as 
much as possible; then spraying the walls and contents with 
water sufficient to dampen them ; leave the room and fasten 
the cracks of the door of exit by pasting or caulking with 
strips of cotton soaked in bichlorid of mercury 1:500; then 
distill live ounces of formalin for each thousand cubic feet 
of space, directing the formaldehyde gas through the key= 
hole and keeping the room closed for from ten to twelve 
hours. 

437. In the absence of formaldehyde gas what would you use to disinfect a room? 

Sulphur fumes; burning at least three pounds of sulphur 
for each 1,000 cubic feet of space; nil sin-faces and contents 
should l>c moistened with water sprayed, or steam, prepar- 
ing the room as when formaldehyde gas is used and leaving 
ii closed for ai Leasl t welve hours. 

438. For what reason is formaldehyde gas preferred to sulphur? 

There is no danger of fire, ;is distillation takes place out- 
side the room : neither will ii destroy colors of the wall paper 



610 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

or fabrics, nor tarnish polished metallic surfaces, while, when 
sulphur is used, there is danger of tire, of the destruction of 
certain colors iu wall paper and other fabrics, and of tic 
tarnishing of all polished metallic surfaces. 

439. What is meant by bichlorid of mercury 1:1000? 

It means one grain of bichlorid of mercury to 1,000 grains 
of water, or seven grains to one pint of water (an avoirdupois 
pint weighing 7,000 grains). 

440. What does 1:500 mean? 

Two grains to 1,000, or fourteen grains to one pint. 

441. How would you disinfect soiled, washable material, such as wearing apparel and 
bed-clothing? 

If not worn much, by boiling in water from one to two 
hours; if nearly or entirely worn out, by burning them. 

442. How would you treat soiled, unwashable material, much as silks, woolens, bedding, 
and mattresses? 

Moisten them by spraying, and expose them to formalde- 
hyde gas, in a tight compartment, for from ten to twelve 
hours. 

443. How would you dress and prepare yourself when called to take charge of a case of 
contagious disease? 

Dress in a suit of old clothes, covering the whole with a 
rubber coat buttoned closely about the neck and around the 
body, ami reaching to the shoes; cover the hair with an oiled= 
silk or rubber cap. 

444. How would you care for yourself after the work is done.' 

After the body is taken care of and the room disinfected, 
the coat, hat, and old suit of clothes should be fumigated, and 
the hands, face, beard, and hair should be washed with soap 
and water and a solution of bichlorid of mercury 1: 1000. 

445. How would you prepare a case of diphtheria for burial? 

Place the body upon the board, then wash it with a strong 
bichlorid solution; inject a strong disinfectant fluid into the 
mouth and nose; raise an artery at some point and fill the 
arteries and capillaries thoroughly; then fill the cavities; in- 
ject more fluid into the mouth and nose and other openings of 
the body ; then, if sufficient time intervenes before the funeral, 
disinfect the room, including the body, with formaldehyde 
gas ; if sufficient time does intervene, the body can then be 
carried to the coffin, which should be placed in an outer 
loom ; previously to removing the body, it should be wrapped 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 611 

in a sheet wrung out of a strong disinfectant; after remov- 
ing from the room, it can be dressed and placed in the coffin 
or casket; if the body has been disinfected in the room, the 
coffin can be carried into the apartment and the body dressed 
and placed therein; if disinfection of the room amounts to 
anything at all, it will have destroyed the bacteria in the 
room. 

446. If the body is to be shipped, how should it be prepared further? 

The openings of the body should be filled with pledgets of 
absorbent cotton soaked in fluid, the body wrapped in cotton 
batting at least oue inch thick, and still further prepared ac- 
cording to the rules adopted by the General Baggage Agents' 
Association for transportation. 

447. How is typhoid fever usuclly communicated? 

By drinking water or eating cold food in which there are 
typhoid bacilli. 

448. Have the germs of all contagious and infectious diseases been determined? 

No; the bacteria that produce scarlet fever, smallpox, 
measles, etc., are not known. 

449. What kind of a dhease is diphtheria? 

It is an acute, infectious* and contagious disease, pro- 
duced by the diphtheretic bacilli. 

450. In what parts of the body are bacilli developed in diphtheria? 

In the false membranes of the throat, nares, and some- 
times in the larynx. 

451. Does the blood contain the diphtheretic bacilli in diphtheria? 

It does not; the blood, however, is very poisonous; it is, 
therefore, very dangerous to cut or wound yourself while 
handling a case of diphtheria. 

452. In preparing a body for shipment, is absorbent cotton better than cotton batting 
for the purpose of encasing the body? 

No; it lias no advantage over cotton batting; cotton bat- 
ting answers every purpose, and has an advantage over ab- 
sorbent cotton by not being so expensive; twenty or thirty 
cents will buy enough cotton batting to encase 1 a body, while 
absorbent cotton will cost much more. 

453. What is the best and easiest method of applying the cotton? 

Spread ;i bed shed upon the floor, cover the surface of 
the sheet lengthwise with a layer of cotton, then crosswise 
with ;i layer, and so on alternately until it is covered by ar 
least six layers; then the body should be laid in the center 



612 CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

of the sheet , ; bring the cotton up over the feet and head first; 
then from one side and then from the other, pinning or stitch- 
ing the sheet over the whole 1 ; then for further protection, ap- 
ply a roller bandage. 

454. What persons are susceptible to contagious diseases? 

All those who have never had a previous attack, and in 
smallpox those who have not been vaccinated. 

455. What persons are immune? 

With few exceptions all persons who have had a previous 
attack, and in smallpox those who have been vaccinated. 

456. What is an immune? 

One who is protected from an infections or contagious 
disease by a previous attack, vaccinating, or by reason of 
race or acclimatization. 

457. Name some of the chemicals used in embalming flvids. 

Arsenic; mercuric chlorid; chlorid of zinc, ammonium, 
sodium, and potassium; arsenite of potassium and sodium; 
sulphate of zinc and potassium; etc. 

458. What gases are used in combination with chemicals in the manufacture of em- 
balming fluids? 

Sulphurous acid gas and formaldehyde gas. 

459. Does it make any difference in which arm the injection is made? 

No. 

460. How would you inject the common carotid artery? 

Always inject downward until the body is filled. The 
fluid will reach the tissues above the point of injection, pro- 
vided enough fluid is used, through the opposite carotid 
artery and vertebral arteries — that is, if tin 1 circulation is 
intact; otherwise, fluid may be injected upward. 

461. Should veins ever be opened while injecting arteries? 

When blood is to be withdrawn it is a good practice, as 
the pressure of the fluid will aid in forcing the blood out. 

462. Is it ever necessary to draw blood from the arteries? 

When the arteries contain blood that is in the way, it 
should be drained out of some pendant artery before begin- 
ning the injection. 

463. How soon after death should a body be embalmed? 

As soon as you have ascertained that death is actually 
present, and the arteries are empty, it may be embalmed. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 613 

464. In what cases is it necessary to do cavity embalming? 

The pleural cavities should be filled in all cases of lung 
diseases, and the abdominal whenever gases are present, 
which shall be your guide in the operation. 

465. How should the injection be completed when fluid appears at the mouth, caused 
by leakage probably from the respiratory tract? 

I would wait from a quarter to half an hour, then inject 
a small amount, continuing, at intervals, the injection slowly 
and in small amounts until all of the tissues are filled. Or 
the throat may be closed by tampons of cotton. 

466. In a case where both common arteries are cut, how must the embalmer proceed? 

He should pick up and tie both upper and one lower end, 
then tie the arterial tube into the other lower end. Fluid 
will reach all parts above the severed arteries through the 
vertebral and collateral circulation. If the ends cannot be 
found, raise the arteries somewhere else and tie severed ends 
when leakage points them out. 

467. Is it necessary to inject the distal part when an artery is raised in an extremity? 

We have never found it necessary. Although by leaving 
the distal end of the artery open at the beginning of the in- 
jection the operator will soon have positive evidence. The 
fluid usually appears sooner or later. If it does not appear at 
all, then inject the distal end. 

468. If the chin drops after embalmment, how would you remedy the matter? 

Such a contingency is positive evidence that no fluid has 
reached the masseter and other muscles of the face and jaw. 
We would direct the use of more fluid and the chin=rest — the 
latter for a few hours only. 

469. Where is the blood usually found after death? 

In the veins and capillaries of the deeper and pendant 
parts of* the body. 

470. What is meant by the vascular system? 

I I usually means a system of vessels in the body that 
carries tin- blood from one part to another. It consists of 
arteries, veins and capillaries. 

471. When a body dies of consumption, what is the condition of the lungs? 

The conditions are very various. We may have hepatiza- 
tion of some parts, and cavities in others, with much broken 



614 CHAM Plo X TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 

dawn lung tissue; while in still other parts the tissue may be 
practicany normal. In an cases of consumption fluid siiouid 
be injected through the respiratory tract in additiou to 
arterial injection. Usually the lungs are diseased in all 
parts before death takes place. 

472. How would you proceed to eliminate the disagreeable odors from a decomposing 
body? 

First, we would remove and deodorize the gases from the 
cavities, using freely a strong deodorant over the surface of 
the body and throughout the room or container; then till the 
body with fluid. 

473. How yould you prevent mould from forming on the face and hands when placing 
in a vault? 

By covering the face and other exposed parts with several 
layers of cloth. The mould will then form on the outside of 
the cloth. 

474. How does fluid reach the visceral organs? 

Through the arteries that supply them with blood in life. 

475. How does fluid reach the lungs? 

Through the bronchial arteries. 

476. How does fluid reach the diaphragm? 

Through the phrenic arteries. 

476. How does fluid reach the stomach? 

Through the gastric artery. 

478. How does fluid reach the liver? 

Through the hepatic artery. 

479. How does fluid reach the spleen? 

Through the spleenic artery. 

480. How does fluid reach the kidneys and suprarenal capsules? 

Through the renal and suprarenal arteries. 

481. How does fluid reach the walls of the intestines and messentaries? 

Through the superior and inferior messenteric arteries. 

482. Why do we do cavity embalming? 

To disinfect the contents of the intestines, stomach and 
plural cavities when necessary. 



PRACTICAL QUESTIONS, AND ANSWERS 615 

483. What indicates the necessity for cavity embalming? 

The presence of gases and the disease which caused death. 

484. When should the pleural cavities be injected? 

When death was caused by consumption or other dis- 
eases causing pleural effusions. 

485. What is the guide for the effectual embalmment of the alimentary canal? 

The gases that may be present. After the gases have 
escaped through the needle, pump in fluid before its removal. 
By this means fluid will reach the contents. 

486. Is it ever necessary to inject fluid into the peritonial cavity? 

Not unless effusions are present. 

487. If all of the visceral organs are reached by arteries, is it ever necessary to inject 
fluid into them to preserve them? 

No, not 'if the circulation is intact. Yes, only when the 
arterial circulation is destroyed. 

488. Does the old method of cavity embalming amount to anything.' 

Not much, unless by accident fluid is injected into the 
alimentary canal. 

489. Why is the old method a failure? 

Because, by relieving the intestines and stomach of gases, 
the walls collapse, making it impossible to mix fluid with 
their contents. 

490. When should the abdominal cavity be treated? 

Whenever gases form causing distention. 

431. Where are abdominal gases usually formed? 

In the stomach and intestines. 

492. Why do gases sometimes form in the stomach and intestines after arterial embalm- 
ing? 

Because the fluid only reaches the walls of these organs, 
anil not their contents. 

493. How much fluid should be injected in arterial embalming? 

That depends entirely on the size, purpose and general 
conditions. To disinfect, not less than one pint of fluid to 
each 20 pounds weight of the body, or not, less than one gal- 
Jon of fluid to a body weighing 150 to 100 pounds. A less quan- 
tity may preserve when weather conditions are good. 



G16 CHAM PI OX TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 

4S4. When should blood be removed? 

AYhen it is in the way, from all full=blooded and congested 
bodies. 

495. When the artery is full of blood, should the injection proceed? 

Xo. Wait until they are emptied by postmortem con- 
traction; or raise a pendant artery and let the blood drain 
out before proceeding to inject. 

496. Kow fill the tissues with fluid when the circulation is destroyed? 

By direct injection into the tissues through the hollow= 
needle. 

497. Is it ever necessary to inject a vein? 

Certainly not. No rational operator would ever think of 
injecting fluid into a vein for any purpose whatever. 

498. Are there any bodies that cannot be preserved by our present methods of em- 

balming? 

Xo. All bodies may be preserved, if treated properly. 

499. To what may the usual failures be ascribed in embalming? 

To the operator, usually, and not to the fluid. 

500. Why is the operator usually at fault when a failure ocevrs? 

Because he does not use his fluid properly; he fails to fill 
all of the tissues; or he does not understand the case. 

501. What essentials are necessary for a man to become a first-class embaliner? 

A fair knowledge of anatomy, physiology, morbid anato- 
my, a good student, and good judgment are some of the es- 
sentials. 

502. Describe Hunter's Canal. 

It is formed by the vastus interims muscle on one side, 
and the adductor longus and adductor magnus on the other, 
together with a strong fibrous band passing over from the 
vastus to the tendons of the adductors. The femoral artery 
runs through this canal to become the popliteal. It is situ- 
ated in the lower part of the thigh. 



A PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



OF SCIENTIFIC AND MEDICAL TERMS 



INTRODUCTION. 



Readers and students of this work will find in the Practical Dictionary 
brief and concise definitions of the medical, scientific, and technical words 
and terms used in the Text-Book, which were thought to need defining. 
With these are included some words of the same character frequently met 
with in the literature of the profession. 

The Standard Dictionary and Gould's Medical Dictionary have been 
consulted jointly as authorities on definitions. For spelling, compounding, 
and forming of words, division of syllables, and accentuation, the former 
authority has generally been followed. 

In spelling, some deviation from the style observed in our former edi- 
tions has been found necessary to conform to the latest and most approved 
methods. Among such changes may be noted the substitution of "e" for 
the diphthongs "se" and "o?," as "fetus" instead of "fcetus," and the drop- 
ping of the final "e" in such chemical terms as "bromin," "chlorid," 
"morphin," etc. 

The German double hyphen is used to join compound words and 
phrases, not only in the dictionary, but in the body of the work, to avoid 
confusion which would arise were a simple hyphen used. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY. 



ab-do'men. The large cavity in the trunk 
between the thorax and pelvis ; the belly. 

ab-dom'i-nal. Pertaining to the abdo- 
men. — a. aorta. Aorta below the dia- 
phragm.— a. cavity. The cavity within the 
walls of abdomen. — a. regions. The clin- 
ical regions of the abdomen. — a. viscera. 
Organs of the abdomen. [of body 

ab-duct'. To draw away from median line 

ab-duc'tion. Movement from median line 

ab-duct'or. A muscle that draws the ex 
tremity from the median line. 

ab-er-ra'tion. Deviation from the normal. 

ab-nor'mal. Contrary to customary order. 

ab-o-li'tion. Complete suspension, as of a 
function. [velopment of disease. 

a-bort'. To miscarry ; to prevent the de- 

a-bra'sion. An excoriation of the skin. 

ab'scess. A circumscribed cavity contain- 
ing pus. [wormwood and aromatics. 

ir'sinthe. A cordial containing oil of 

ab-sorb'. To take up ; to imbibe. 

ao-sorb'ent. Taking up by suction; imbib- 
ing. — a . cotton. Cotton freed from impu- 

ac-ces'so-ry. Auxiliary ; assisting, [rities. 

ac-cli-ma'tion. Becoming inured to a cli- 

ac-crete'. Grown together. [mate. 

ac-cre'tion. Accumulation ; adherence of 

a-ceph'a-lus. Headless. [parts. 

a-ce-tab'u-lum. A cup-shaped cavity that 
receives head of femur. 

a-cet'ic acid. The acid of vinegar. 

A-chil'les, tendon of. Large tendon of heel. 

a-cic'u-la. A slender needle-like process. 

ac'ne. Inflammation of sebaceous glands. 

— a. ro-sa'ce-a. Chronic congestion of skin 

ac'rid. An irritant poison. [of face. 

ac-ro'mi-on. Process at summit of scapula. 

ac'tion. Performance of a function or pro- 
cess. — reflex a. An involuntary action 
of one part of the body, due to an impres- 
n some afferent nerve end-organ; 
involuntary action of one part of body. 

act'ive. Energetic; the reverse of passive. 



a-cute'. Rapid, severe ; sharp. 

Ad'am's apple. A prominence in front of 
neck made by thyroid cartilage of larynx. 

Ad'di-son's disease. A disease involving 
the suprarenal capsules. [line. 

ad-duc'tion. Movement toward median 

ad-duc'tor. A muscle that draws an organ 
or part towards the axis. 

a'den. A gland ; a bubo. 

a-de'ni-a. Hodgkin's disease. 

ad-en-i'tis. Inflammation of a gland. 

ad'en-oid. Form resembling a gland ; 
glandular. — a. gland. Prostate gland. 

ad-en-o'ma. A glandular tumor. 

ad-he'sion. Union of two surfaces or parts. 

ad'i-po-cere. Grave-wax ; a waxy sub- 
stance of decomposition in moist soils. 

ad'i-pose. Relating to fat ; fatty. — a. tissue. 
Fat cells united by connection tissue, [tion. 

ad-i-po'sis. Corpulency ; fatty degenera- 

ad-o-les'cence. The period between pu- 
berty and maturity. [sels. 

ad-ven-ti'ti-a. External coat of blood-ves- 

ad-ven-ti'tious. Accidental, foreign, or 
acquired. [power. 

ad-y-na'mi-a. Deficiency or loss of vital 

ad-y-nam'ic. Asthenic ; physically weak ; 
pertaining to adynamia. — a. fevers. Ac- 
companied by great asthenia. [air. 

a-er-a'tion. Mixture or impregnation with 

a-e'ri-al. Pertaining to air ; atmospheric. 

a-e-ro'bi-a. Bacteria requiring free oxygen. 

a-e-ro'bic. Unable to live without oxygen. 

— a. bacteria. Bacteria that are unable to 
live without air or oxygen. 

af-fec'tion. A synonym of disease, as an 
affection of the lungs. [center. 

af'fer-ent. Conducting inward, toward the 

afflux. Flow of blood or liquid to a part. 

af-fu'sion. A pouring upon, as water upon 
the body. 

aft'er-birth. The placenta and fetal mem- 
branes expelled alter a birth. 

a'gar-a-gar Cor a-gar.) A gelatinous sub- 
stance from algre, used by bacteriologists 
as a nutrient solution. 



620 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



ag-glom'er-ate. Massed together ; aggre- 
gated, [of wounded edges, 
ag-glu-ti-na'tion. A joining together, as 
ag'mi-nate. Arranged in clusters ; grouped. 
— a. glands. Pyer's patches. [fering. 
ag'o-ny. The death struggle ; intense suf- 
a'gue. Malarial or intermittent fever. 
air. The atmosphere. — a. cells. An air 
vesicle. — a. -passages. The nares, mouth, 
larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes. 
— a-pump. An instrument for producing a 
al-bu'men. The white of an egg. [vacuum, 
al-bu'min. A proteid substance, the chief 
constituent of white of an egg. [bumen. 
al-bu'min-ate. A basic compound of al- 
al-bu-mi-nu'ri-a. The presence of albu- 
min in the urine. [of hydrogen, 
al'de-hyde. Alcohol deprived of two atoms 
a-leu-ce' (or ke) mi-a. A deficiency of 

white corpuscles in the blood. 
ari-ment. Nourishment ; food. 
al'ka-li. An electropositive substance, com- 
bining with an acid to form a neutral salt. 
— fixed a. Potassium and sodium hydrate. 
cl'^a-line. Having the properties of an 
al'ka-loid. Resembling alkali. [alkali, 

al-lar/to-ic. Relating to the allantois. — a. 
circulation. The fetal circulation through 
the cord and unbilical vessels. [fetus. 

al-lan'to-is. Membrane enveloping the 
a-lu'mi-num. A whitish metal, with a 

low specific gravity. 
a-mal-ga-ma'tion. The art or process of 

forming an amalgam. 

am-mo'ni-a. Same as ammonium. — a 

water. A watery solution of ammonium 

am-mo'ni-um. Hypothetic base of am 

am-ne'si-a. Loss of memory. [monia 

am'ni-cn. Inner embryonic membrane 

am-r.i-ot'ic fluid. The liquor afnnii. [crystal 

a-mor'pho'j3. Formless ; structureless ; non 

am-phi-ar-thro'sis. Articulation by fi 

brous tissue or strong ligaments, permit 

ting slight motion, [pertaining to starch 

am-y-la'ce-ous (or am'y-loid). Starch-like 

am'y-loid. Starch-like. [sugar 

am-y-lo-lyt'ic. Converting starch into 

am'y-lum. Starch. 

an-a-e-rob'ic. Living without air. — a. 

bacteria (or an-a-e-ro'bi-a). Dacteria 
which flourish without air. 
a'nal. Pertaining to the anus. 
a-nal'o-gous. Conforming or answering 

to; bearing analogy or resemblance, 
an-a-sar'ca. General dropsy. 



a-nas-to-mo'sis. Lnion or interlacing of ar- 
teries, veins, or other vessels ; imoiculation. 

a-nas-to-mot'ic. Pertaining to anastomosis. 

an-a-tom'ic. Pertaining to anatomy. 

an-a-tom'i-cal. Pertaining to anatomy. 
— a. guide. A muscular or tendinous guide 
to a vessel. 

a-nat'o-my. The science of organic struc- 
ture. — human a. Anatomy of the human 

body. — morbid a. Study of diseased 

structure. — visceral a. Study of the 

viscera. — regional a. Study of the cor- 
related regions of the body. [corpuscles. 

an-e'mi-a. Deficiency of blood and red 

a-r.em'ic. Pertaining to anemia ; bloodless. 

an-es-the'si-a. A state of insensibility. 

an-es-thet'ic. A substance producing anes- 

an-eu'ri-a. Lack of nervous power, [thesia. 

an'eu-rism. Dilatation of an artery. 

an-hy'drous. Destitute of water. [notic. 

an'i-lin. A powerful antiseptic ami hyp- 

an-i-mal'cule. A microscopic organism. 

an-i-mal'cu-lum (pi. -la). Some as animal- 

an'kle. Joint between foot and leg. [cule. 

an-ky-lo'sis. Knitting together of two 
bones or parts of bones ; stiffness of a 

an-ky'roid. Hoop-shaped. [joint. 

an'nu-lar. Formed like a ring; ring-like. 

a-nom'a-lous. Deviating from the ordinary. 

a-nom'a-ly. That which is anomalous. 

an-o-rex'i-a. Absence or loss of ap 

an-cx-e'mi-a. Lack of oxygen in blood. 

an-te-flex'ion. A bending forward. 

an-te-ver'sion. A turning forward. 

an'thrax. A carbuncle ; the disease pro- 
duced by the anthrax bacilli. — a. spores. 
Spores of the anthrax bacilli. 

an-ti'cus. Anterior; in front of. 

an'ti-dote. An agent that counteracts ac- 
tion of a poi'im. [lie element. 

an'ti-mony. A silver-white, hard, metal- 

an-ti-sep'sis. The prevention of sepsis. 

an-ti-sep'tic. An agent that prevents the 
growth of bacteria. 

an-ti-tox'ic. Opposed to poisoning. 

an-ti-tox'in. A substance formed in the 
body that counteracts poison. 

an-ti-zy-mot'ic. Preventive of fermenta- 
tion or contagion. 

a-nu'ri-a. Absence or deficiency of urine. 

a'nus. External opening of the rectum. 

a-or'ta. The main arterial trunk. 

a-or'tic. Pertaining to the aorta. 

ap'er-ture. An opening or orifice. 

a'pex. Summit or extremity of anything. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



121 



ap-ne'a. Breathlessness ; difficult, respira- 
tion, [a tendon, 
ap-o-neu-ro'sis. A fibrinous expansion of 
ap-o-neu-rot'ic. Pertaining to aponeurosis. 

— a. fascia. A deep fascia, 
ap'o-plex-y. Paralysis from rupture of a 
cerebral vessel. [organ as a part of it. 

ap-pen'dage. That which is attached to an 
ap-p-en-di-ci'tis. Inflammation of the ap- 
pendix vermiformis. 
ap-pen'dix. An appendage ; a prolonga- 
tion. — a. vermiformis. The worm-like 
attachment to the cecum, 
ap-po-si'tion. The act of fitting together. 
ap-prox'i-mate. To cause to approach, 
a'qua. Water. [duct, 

aq'ue-duct. A canal. — a. of Sylvius. Tear- 
a'que-ous. Pertaining to water ; watery. 
— a. humor. A watery substance in the 
anterior of the eye. 
a-rach'noid. Resembling a web ; arachnoid 
membrane. — a. membrane. Middle mem- 
brane of the brain and spinal cord, 
ar'bor-vi'tas (tree of life). Tree-like figure 

in a section of cerebellum. 
arch. Term applied to various curved por- 
tions of body. — a. of aorta. Curved part 
extending from heart to third dorsal ver- 
ar'cus. A bow, arch, or ring. [tebra. 

a're-a. Any space with boundaries, [sue. 
a-re'o-la;. The interstices in connective tis- 
a-re'o-lar. Full of interstices. — a. tissue. 

Connective or cellular tissue, 
ar-e-om'e-ter. An instrument for meas- 
uring specific gravity of fluids. [cine, 
ar-gen'tum. Silver, a meta! used in medi- 
arm. Upper limb from shoulder to elbow, 
arm'pit. Cavity under arm ; axillary space, 
ar'se-nic. A chemical element of grayish- 
white color. — a. acid. A colorless white 
crystalline compound, 
ar-se'r.i-ous ac'id. White arsenic. 
ar-te'ri-al. Pertaining to an artery. — a. 

blood. Blood after aeration in lungs. 
ar-te-ri-al-i-za'tion. Oxygenation of blood, 
ar-te'ri-al-ize. To oxygenate the blood, 
ar-te'ri-ole. A small artery. 
ar-te-ri'tis. Inflammation of an artery. 
ar'ter-y. Vessel carrying blood from heart, 
ar-thro'di-a. Joint with gliding movement, 
ar-thro'sis. An articulation; a suture. 
ar-tic'u-lar. Pertaining to a joint. — a. 
la-mel'la. Articulation of thin scales or 
oi bone. 
ar-tic-u-la'tion. A joint or an arthrosis. 



ar-y-te'noid. Cup or ladle-shaped. — a. car- 
tilage. Certain cartilage of the larynx. 
as-ci'tes. Dropsy of the abdomen, 
a-sep'sis. An absence of septic matter or 
blood-poisoning. [ease germs. 

a-sep'tic. Free from septic matter or dis- 
as-phyx'i-a. A condition caused by non- 

oxygenation of the blood, 
as-phyx'i-ate. To bring into asphyxia. 
as'pi-rate. To pump out, as blood or effu- 
sions from the body. [pumping out. 
as-pi-ra'tion. The act of aspirating or 
as'pi-ra-tor. An instrument for extracting 

fluid from the cavities of the body. 
as-sim-i-la'tion. The act of absorbing nu- 
triment, [debility ; weakness, 
as-the'ni-a. A loss of strength ; general 
as-then'ic. Feeble ; without strength, 
asth'ma. Paroxysmal dyspnea with oppres- 
asth-mat'ic. Affected with asthma, [sion. 
as-trag'a-lus. The ankle-bone, 
as-trin'gent. An agent producing contract- 
ing of organic tissues, 
a-tax'i-a. Irregularity in functions of or- 
gans ; incoordination of muscular action, 
ath-e-ro'ma. (1) A soft encysted tumor. 

(2) Degeneration of arterial walls, 
ath-e-ro'ma-tous. Affected with atheroma, 
at'las. The uppermost vertebra, 
at-mos-pher'ic. Pertaining to the atmos- 
sphere. — a. pressure. The pressure of 
15 lbs. per sq. in. exerted at sea-level in 
all directions by the atmosphere, 
at'om. The ultimate unit of an element, 
at'ro-phy. A wasting of a part from lack 
of nutrition. [tened ; a band or tie. 

at-tach'ment. That which is held or fas- 
at-ten'u-a-ted. Wasted ; thinned, [together, 
at-trac'tion. Tendency of particles to draw 
au'di-to-ry. Pertaining to the organs of 
hearing. — a. canal. Canal of the ear. 
— a. nerves. Nerves of the ear. 
au'ral. Pertaining to the ear. 
au'ri-cle. (1) The external ear. (2) An up- 
per chamber of the heart, 
au-ric'u-lar. Pertaining to the ear. — a. 
appendix. The anterior prolongation of 
tlie auricle of the heart. 
au-ric-u-lo-ven-tric'u-lar. Pertaining to 

both the auricle and ventricle. — a. open- 
ing. Opening between auricle and ven- 
tricle. — a. valve. Valve guarding the 
auriculoventricular opening. 
au'ris. The external ear. 
aus-cult'. To examine by auscultation. 



622 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



aus-cul-ta'tion. A method of determining 
the conditions of an organ by listening to 
the sounds produced by it, as the lungs or 
heart. [by volition ; spontaneous. 

au-to-mat'ic. Not affected or controlled 

au-ton'o-mous. Independent ; self-govern- 

au'tcp-c;'. Post-mortem examination, [ing. 

aux-il'i-a-ry. Giving aid or support ; sub- 
sidiary ; accessory. 

av-oir-du-pcis'. Common English system 
of weight in which 16 oz., equals a pound. 

ax-il'ln. The armpit. 

ax'il-la-ry. Pertaining to the axilla. — a. 
glands. Lymphatic glands of the axilla. 
— a. plexus. The plexus of nerves in the 
axilla. — a. space. The armpit. 

ax'is. (1) The second vertebra. (2) An im- 
aginary line through center of body. 

az'y-gos. Without a fellow, as a muscle or 
vein. [and veins. 

az'y-gous. Not paired, as certain muscles. 

B 

bac'il-lar. Resembling little rods or bacilli. 

ba-cil'lus (pl.-li). A rod-shaped bacterium; 
one of the three general forms of bacteria. 
— comma b. (of Koch). A comma-shaped 
bacterium ; the cholera bacillus. 

bac-te-ri-ol-o'gist. One versed in bacteri- 
ology, [organisms. 

bac-te'ri-ol'o-gy. The science of micro- 

bac-te'ri-um (pl.-ri-a). Lowest known form 
of plant life ; micro-organism ; microbe. 

band'age. A narrow strip of muslin or 
other material for binding wounds, frac- 
tures, etc. — rubber b. A narrow strip of 
rubber made into a roll for pressing the 
liquids out of the subcutaneous tissues or 
vessels of a part. — roller b. Same as band- 
age. — Emarck's b. A rubber webbing used 
for same purpose as the rubber. 

ba-rom'e-ter. An instrument for measur- 
ing pressure of the atmosphere. 

base. (1) The lower part. (2) Chief sub- 
stance of a mixture. 

base'ment meTn'brane. Delicate membrane 
beneath the epithelium. 

ba'sic. (1) Of a nature of a base. (2) Hav- 
ing properties opposed to acid. 
_bas'i-lar. Pertaining to base, especially of 
skull. — b. artery. Artery at base of brain. 

ba-sil'ic. Any important structure or drug. 
— b. vein. The largest vein on the inner 
side of the arm. [jars or galvanic cells. 

bat'ter-y. A series of connected Leyden 

bel'ly. Colloquial term for abdomen. 



be-nign'. Not malignant ; mild. — b. tumor. 
One that does not recur after removal. 

be-nig 'nant. Same as benign. 

ber'i-ber-i. An East Indian infectious dis- 
ease, [especially the flexor muscle of arm. 

bi'ceps. Muscle with two heads or origins ; 

bi-chlo'rid. A chlorid with twice as much 
chlorin as a protochlorid. — b. cf mer- 
cury. Mercuric chlorid; corrosive subli- 
mate. 

bi-con'cave. Hollow on both surfaces. 

bi-con'vex. Rounded on both surfaces. 

bi-cus'pid. Having two cusps or points, 
b. teeth. Teeth having two cusps. — b. 
valve. Valve guarding the auriculoven- 
tricular opening on left side of heart. 

bi-fur'cate. Divided into two branches. 

bi-fur-ca'tion. A dividing into two parts. 

bi-gas'ter. Having two bellies. [sides. 

bi-lat'er-al. Two-sided; pertaining to two 
bile. The yellow bitter liquid secreted by 
the liver. — b.-cyst. The gall-bladder. 

— b. duct. See biliary duct. — b. -pigment. 
Coloring-matter of the bile. — b. -stone. 
A calcareous concretion in the gall-blad- 
der and its ducts. 

bil'i-a-ry. Pertaining to the bile. — b. duct. 
A duct communicating with the liver. — b. 
calculus. A bile or gall-stone. 

bil-i-ru'bin. The orange pigment of bile. 

bil-i-ver'din. The green pigment of bile. 

bi-lo'bate. Having two lobes. 

bi'na-ry. Compounded of two elements. 

bi-cl'o-gist. One versed in biology, [things. 

bi-ol'o-gy. The science of life and living 

bi'ped. Having two feet. 

bi-pen'ni-form. Having a resemblance to a 
quill pen, as a muscle. [urine. 

blad'der. The membranous receptacle of 

bleach'er. A mixture supposed _to restore 
the normal color, when applied to the sur- 
face of a cLad body. [chlorinated lime. 

bleach'ing pow'der. Disinfectant mixture; 

bleb. See Bulla. 

blood. The nutrient fluid which circulates 
in arteries and veins. — b.-cell. A blood- 
corpuscle. — b.-clot. A coagulum. — b. -cor- 
puscle. Cellular elements of blood ;■ blood- 
cells. — b. -crystals. Crystals of hematoi- 
din. — b.-disk. A red blood-corpuscle. — b.- 
fibrin. The nitrogenous proteids which 
coagulate in exposed blood. — b. plasma. 
Fluid portion of blood. — b. -poisoning. 
The absorption of toxins into the blood. 
— b. -serum. Fluid constituent of blood, 
b.-vesseis. Vessels which carry blood. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



623 



blow'pipe. A short tube used to direct a 
pencil of flame. [work of the body, 

bone. The hard tissue forming the frame 
bo'rax. Sodium diborate ; used as an anti 
bow'el. The intestine. [septic 

brach'i-al. Pertaining to the arm. — b 
artery. A continuation of the axillary 
artery. — b. glands. Lymphatics of the 
arm. — b. veins. Those that accompany 
the brachial artery within its sheath, [bow. 
brach'i-um. The arm from shoulder to el- 
brain. Contents of cranium, especially the 
cerebrum, — b. fever. Inflammation of 
the brain or its membranes ; meningitis, 
breast. The upper anterior part of the 

trunk. — b.-bone. The sternum, 
brim. An edge or margin. — b. of pelvis. 

Boundary of superior strait of pelvis. 
Bright's disease. Disease of the kidneys 
first described by Dr. Bright, of London, 
bro'mate. A salt of bromic acid, 
bro'mid. A basic salt of bromin. 
bro'min. A reddish-brown liquid, very 
poisonous escharotic, giving off a suffo- 
cating vapor, 
bron'chi-a. The bronchial tubes that di- 
vide and subdivide in the lungs, 
bron'chi-al. Pertaining to the bronchi. — b. 
tube. A bronchus. [tubes, 

bron'chi-ole. The most minute bronchial 
bron-chi'tis. Inflammation of the bron- 
chial tubes, 
bron'cho-cele. Morbid enlargement of the 
thyroid gland ; goiter. [of trachea, 

bron'chus (pl.-chi). One of main branches 
bu'bo. An inflammatory swelling of a lym- 
phatic gland, due to infection, 
bu-bon'ic. Pertaining 1o bubo. — b. plague. 
A contagious, epidemic disease witli fe- 
ver, delirium, and buboes. [mouth. 
buc'ca. The hollow part of the cheek; the 
buc'cal cavity. Cavity of the mouth. 
buc'cin-a-tor. A thin, flat muscle of the 
cheek. [oblongata and pons, 
bulb. An expansion of a canal or vessel ; tin 
bul'la. A large bleb or blister; inflated por 

of bony external meatus of ear. 
burn. '!'•. cauterize; to decompose by tire 
ome inflamed, [force a way through 
bur'row. To make a hole or furrow ; to 
bur'sa. A pouch 01 sac; a small - 
posed between movable parts, b. mu-co' 
sa. A membranous sac seen 
bur'sal. Pertaining to a bursa. [fluid. 

but'tocks. The nates; rumps. 



ca-chec'tic. Characterized by cachexia. 

ca-chex'i-a. A depraved condition of nu- 
trition ; malnutrition. 

ca-da'ver. The dead body ; corpse. — c. ri- 
gidity. Rigidity after death; rigor mortis. 

ca-dav'er-ous. Resembling a dead body. 

cal-ca're-a. Lime. 

cal-ca're-ous. Having the nature of lime. 
— c. degeneration. A deposit of lime-salts 

cal-cif'ic. Forming lime. [in a part. 

cal-ci-fi-ca'tion. The deposition of lime- 
salts in the tissues. 

cal'ci-um. A metal, the basis of lime. — c. 
phosphate. The phosphate of lime. 

cal'cu-lus. A stone-like concretion formed 
in the body. — arthritic c. A gouty concre- 
tion. — biliary c. A gall-stone. — nephritic 
c. A stone formed in the kidney. — uri- 
nary c. A stone-like concretion in urine. 

cal'i-ber. The internal diameter of a tube. 

cal-lo'sum. The corpus callosum. 

cal'lous. Hard ; indurate. 

cal'o-mel. A mercuric chlorid or mild chlb- 
rid of mercury ; a purgative. 

ca-lor'ic. Pertaining to heat or its principle. 

cal-va'ri-um. The skullcap. 

calx. (1) The heel. (2) Lime or chalk. 

camp fever. A synonym of typhus fever. 

cam'phor-a-ted. (1) To impregnate with 
camphor. (2) A salt of camphoric acid. 

ca-nal'. A tube for carrying fluids of the 
body. — alimentary c. The whole digest- 
ive tube from the mouth to the anus. 
— Ha-ver'sian c. One of the numerous 
channels for capillary blood-vessels in 
bone substance. — Hunter's c. The sheath 
of the femoral vessels behind Poupart's 
ligament. —nasal c. A canal in the 
nasal bone for the transmission of the 
nasal nerves. — spinal c. A canal formed 
by the vertebrae for the transmission of 
the spinal cord. [in a bone. 

can-a-lic'u-lus. A small canal or tube, as 

can-cel'li. The divisions of the interior of 
bone. [duction of epithelial cells. 

can'cer. A malignant tumor, with the pro- 

can'cer-ous. Of the nature of a cancer. 

can'ker. Any ulcerous sore with a tendency 
to gang] 

can'tha-ris (pl.-i-des). Spanish fly; dried 
and i" 'v. dered beetli (Canthari vi tcati >ria I 

cap'il-la-ry. A minute blood-vessel, like 
a hair. c. attraction. The force that 



C24 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



causes fluids to rise in fine tubes or inter- 
stices. — c. circulation. Circulation of 
blood through the capillaries. — c. repul- 
sion. Repelling the blood from the capil- 

cap'su-lar. Pertaining to a capsule, [laries. 

cap'su-late. To enclose in a capsule. 

cap'sule. A membranous sac enclosing a 
part. — Mal-pi'ghi-an c. A membrane en- 
closing the Malpighian bodies. — supra- 
renal c. A small, flat body on the upper 

cap'ut. The head. [side of the kidney. 

car-bo-hy'drate. A compound of carbon 
with hydrogen and oxygen. 

car'bo-la-ted. Carbolized. 

car-bcl'ic ac'id. Phenol from coal-tar. 

car'bon. .V non-metallic substance, occur- 
ring in the forms of diamond graphite and 
charcoal. — c. dioxid. Carbonic acid gas. 

car-bo-na'ceous. Pertaining to or yielding 
carl nil. [and a base. 

car'bon-ate. A compound of carbonic acid 

car-bon'ic. Pertaining to or obtained from 
carbon. — c. acid. Carbon dioxid, or the 
gaseous impurity in venous blood. — c. 
ox:d. A poisonous gas formed by the com- 
bustion of charcoal. [closed in a box. 

car'bcy. A large globular glass bottle en- 

car-ci-no'ma. A cancer, which see. 

car'di-ac. Pertaining to the heart. 

car-di'tis. Inflammation of the heart. 

ca'ri-es. Ulceration and decay of a bone. 
— c. of the spine. Inflammation of the 
spinal column. 

ca-rot'id. Principal artery of neck. 

car'pal. Pertaining to the carpus or wrist. 

car'pus. The wrist; the wrist-joint. 

car'ti-lage. Gristle ; a non-vascular, elas- 
tic tissue, softer than bone. — articular c. 
That lining the articular surface of bones. 

car-ti-lag'i-nous. Of the nature of carti- 
lage, [for mummies. 

c?.r'ton-nage. The material used as casing 

car-touche'. An oblong figure, with 
rounded ends, containing the name of a 
king, cpjeen, or deity. 

ca'se-in. The clotted proteid of milk. 

cast. A mass of plastic matter having form 
of the cavity in which it has been molded. 

cat'a-lep-sy. Nervous condition associated 
with loss of will and muscular rigidity. 

ca-tarrh'. Inflammation of a mucous mem- 
brane. — epidemic c. Influenza. 

ca-thar'tic. A purgative medicine. 

cath'e-ter. A slender tube for introduction 
into canals or passages. 



cau'da. A tail, or tail-like appendage. — c. 
equina. The fibrous termination of the 
spinal cord. [like process of the liver. 

cau'date. Having a tail. — c. lobe. The tail- 

cau'dex cer'e-bri. The crura cerebri, [iron. 

caus'tic. An escharotic. [drug or heated 

cau'ter-ize. To burn or sear with a caustic 

ca'va. One of the large veins of the body. 

ca'val. Hollow; pertaining to a cave. — c. 
opening. The opening in the diaphragm 
for the inferior vena cava. 

cav'ern-ous. Having hollow places. 

cav'i-ty. A hollow space within a body or 
thing. 

ce'cal. Pertainng to the cecum. [testine. 

ce'eum. Blind pouch at head of larje in- 

ce'li-ac. Pertaining to the abdomen. — c. 
artery. An artery of the belly. — c. axis. 
A branch of the abdominal aorta. 

ce-li'tis. Inflammation of abdominal or- 

cell. A small protoplasmic mass. [gans. 

cel'lu-lar. Composed of cells. — c. tissue. 
Areolar or connective tissue. [sue. 

cel-lu-li'tis. Inflammation of cellular tis- 

cel'lu-lose. The predominating element of 
plant-tissue. [root and neck of a tooth. 

ce-ment'. The bony substance covering the 

cen'ti-grade. Having Pill degrees. — c. t'.ier- 
mom'e-ter. A thermometer with 100 de- 
grees as the boiling-point of water and 
zero as the freezing-point. 

cen'ti-gram. Hundredth part of a gram. 

cen'ti-li-ter. Hundredth part of a liter. 

cen'ti-meter. Hundredth part of a meter. 

cen-trif'u-gal. Receding from center. 

cen-trip'e-tal. Tending toward center. 

ce.i'trum. Center or middle part. — c. ten- 
c'inosum. With the tendon in the center 

ce'ra. Wax. [or the middle part. 

ce-ra'ceous. Of the nature of wax ; waxy. 

cer-e-bel'lar. Pertaining to the cerebellum. 

cer-e-bel'lum. The principal or^an of the 
central nervous system ; the inferior and 
posterior part of the brain. 

cer'e-bral. Relating to the cerebrum or 
brain. — c. softening. Sometimes of brain. 

cer-e-bro-spi'nal. Relating to the brain and 
spinal cord. — c. axis. The brain and cord, 
c. fever, — c. meningitis. Inflammation 
of the membranes of brain and cord ; spot- 
ted fever. — c. system. The nervous sys- 
tem, including brain and spinal cord, and 
nerve-branches given out from them. 

cer'e-brum The upper and anterior part 
of the brain, constituting its chief por- 
tion ; the seat of thought and will. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



cere'cloth. A cloth coated or saturated with 
wax or cerate, used as a wrapping or 
winding-sheet for the dead. 

ce-ru'men. The ear-wax. 

cer'vi-cal. Pertaining to the neck. 

cer'vix. The neck, especially the back part. 

chalk. Carbonate of lime. 

cham'ber. A hollow or cavity. [ulcer. 

chan'cre. The primary or hard syphilitic 

chan'nel. A furrow or groove. 

chem'is-try. The science of molecular and 
atomic structures of bodies. 

chem'ic-al. Pertaining to chemistry. — c. 

elements. That form of matter which can- 
not be decomposed by any means known 
to science. — c. analysis. The resolution of 
a compound into its parts or elements, in- 
cluding quantitative as well as qualita- 

chem'ist. One versed in chemistry, [tive. 

chest. The thorax ; upper portion of trunk. 

chi'asm. A crossing ; the optic commissure. 

chlo'ral. A colorless crystalline solid. — c. 
hydrate. A hydrochlorate. [radical. 

chlo'rid. A compound of chlorin and a 

chlo'rin. A non-metallic gaseous element. 

chlo'ro-form. A heavy, colorless, volatile 
liquid compound, used as an anesthetic. 

chol'e-doch. Carrying bile. — c. duct. The 
bile duct that opens into the duodenum. 

chol'er-a. An infectious disease caused by 
the presence of the Spirillum cholera; Asi- 
atics. — Asiatic c. A malignant form of 
cholera ; epidemic cholera. — c. infantum. 
Summer complaint. — c. morbus. Sporadic 
cholera. 

cho'ri-on. The outer envelop of the fetus. 

cho'roid. The second or vascular tunic of 
the eye. — c. coat or membrane. The 
choroid. — c. plex'us. Fold of membrane 
near lateral ventricles of brain. [acute. 

chron'ic. Long continued ; the reverse of 

chyle. The nutritive, milky fluid of intes- 
tinal digestion. 

chy-lif'er-ous. Transmitting chyle, [food. 

chy-li-fi-ca'tion. Chyle-formation from 

chy-lo-poi-et'ic. Chyle-producing. — c. or- 
gans. Chyle-producing organs. 

chyme. Food that has undergone gastric 
I ni not intestinal digestion. [cicatrix. 

cic-a-tri'cial. Resembling or forming a 

cic'a-trix (pl.-tri-ces). A scar or mark of a 

cic-a-tri-za'tion. Process of healing, [wound 

cic'a-trize. To heal, to promote healing, as 
of a wound or ulcer. 

cil'i-a (pi. of cil'i-um). The eyelashes ; hair- 
like processes of certain cells. 



cil'i-a-ry. Pertaining to the cilia. — c. body. 
The ciliary muscles and processes. — c. 
ganglion. The ganglion of the apex of the 
orbit. — c. muscle. The muscle of accom- 
modation of the eye. — c. process. Cir- 
cularly arranged folds of the choroid, con- 
tinuous with the iris in front. 

cir'cle of WilTis. An arterial anastomo- 
sis at base of brain, between terminal 
branches of carotid and basilar arteries. 

cir-cu-la'tion. Passage of blood through 
the body. — collateral c. Passage of blood 
through secondary channels after closing 
of the principal route. — fetal c. That of 
the fetus. — portal c. Passage of blood 
from the digestive organs into and 
through the liver and its exit by the 
hepatic veins. — placental c. Same as 
fetal C. — pulmonary c. Passage of blood 
through the lungs for purification. — sys- 
temic c. Passage of blood through all the 
tissues of the body for their nourishment. 
— vi-tel'line c. That of carrying oxygen 
and nutriment to the embryo. 

cir'cu-la-to-ry. Pertaining to the circula- 
tion. — c. system. The system of vessels 
through which the blood circulates. 

cir-cum-duc'tion. Continuous circular 

movement of an extremity. 

cir'cum-flex. Surrounding, as a vessel or 
nerve ; winding. [ing, or winding. 

cir-cum-flex'ion. The act of bending, curv- 

cir-cum-scribed'. Clearly defined, as an ab- 
scess, [tissue of an organ. 

cir-rho'sis. Thickening of the connective 

clav'i-cle. The collar-bone. 

cla-vic'u-lar. Pertaining to the clavicle. 

clei-do-cos'tal. Pertaining to the ribs and 
clavicle. [and mastoid process. 

clei-do-mas'toid. Pertaining to the clavicle 

clo'sure. A closing or shutting up. 

clot. See Coagulum. 

co-ag-u-la-bil'i-ty. Producing coagulation. 

co-ag'u-late. To change a liquid, as blood 
or milk, into a clot or jelly. [ting. 

co-ag-u-la'tion. A clotting; the act of clot- 

co-ag'u-lum. A clot or mass of thickened 

co-a-lesce'. Crow or come together, [blood. 

co-a-les'cence. I'nion of two or more parts. 

co-ap-ta'tion. Adjustment of the edges of 
fractures or of parts. 

coe'eus. (pl.-ci). A spherical bacterium; 

synonym of micrococcus. 

coc-cyg'e-al. Pertaining to the coccyx. 



626 



CHAMPIOX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 



coc'cyx (pl.-cy-ges). Last bone of the spi- 
nal column. [ternal ear. 
coch'le-a. One of the passages of the in- 
co-he'sion. Act or condition of cohering; 
co-li'tis. Inflammation of colon. [union. 
coMapse'. Failure of the vital powers, 
col'lar-bone. The clavicle. 
col-lat'er-al. Accompanying: aiding. — c. cir- 
culation. See Circulation, Collateral, 
col-lo'di-on. A dressing for wounds, made 

by dissolving guncotton in ether, 
co'lon. Principal part of the large intestine, 
col'or. A pigment. — c. matter. That which 
col'umn. A rod or pillar. [imparts color, 
co'ma. An abnormally deep sleep ; stupor, 
co'ma-tose. In a condition of coma. [tion. 
com-bus'tion. Process of burning or oxida- 
com'ma ba-cilTus. A bacillus shaped like a 

comma, found in cholera patients, 
com'mis-sure. A bridge-like structure unit- 
ing two contiguous similar parts, 
com-plex'ion. Color or hue and appearance 
of skin. [ditions. 

com-pli-ca'tion. Interaction of morbid con- 
com-po-si'tion. Constituents of a mixture. 
com'press. Folded cloths for local pressure, 
con'cave. Presenting a hollow incurvation, 
con'cha. The outer ear ; the turbinated bone, 
con-cre'tion. A calculus ; an osseous de- 
posit ; abnormal union of adjacent parts, 
con'dyle. An enlarged and prominent end 

of a bone, as the femur, 
con-fyie'ment. The period of parturition. 
con'.Tj-ent. Running together, as small- 
pox pustules, 
con-gen'i-tal. Existing from birth; innate, 
con-gest'ed. Hyperemia; morbidly en- 
gorged with blood, 
con-ges'tion. Hyperemia of a part, 
con-glom'er-ate. Massed together, as glands, 
con'i-cal. Cone-shaped. 

con-junc-ti'va. Mucous membrane of eye. 
co'noid. Conic ; of form of a cone, 
con-stit'u-ent. Forming a necessary part. 
c. element. One of the elements of which 
the body is composed, 
con-sti-tu'tion-al disease. Inherited dis- 
eases ; those that pervade the whole system, 
con-strict'. To draw together in one part, 
con-ta'gion. Communication of disease 
from person to person by direct or indi- 
rect contact. [(2) Transmitting disease, 
con-ta'gious. (1) Transmissible by contact. 
con-ta'gi-um. Septic matter by which con- 
tagious disease is communicated. 



con-tort'ed. Twisted. [contagion, 

con-tract'. To draw together ; to acquire by 
con-tract'ile. Having the power to contract, 
con-trac'tion. Act of contracting or state 

of being contracted, 
con-tuse'. To bruise. [blunt body. 

ccr.-tu'sion. A bruise from a blow by a 
con-va-les'cence. Period of recovery after 
disease, [gether toward a common focus. 
con-ver'gence. An approaching near to- 
con-ver'gent. Tending to a point, a= Tnes. 
con'vo-lu-ted. Folded together; intricate. 
con-vo-lu'tion. A folding upon itself of any 
organ. [traction ; a spasm or fit. 

ccn-vul'sion. A violent involuntary con- 
co-or'di-nate. Harmonious action, as of 
cop'per. A reddish brown metal, [mu-eles. 
cop'per-as. Sulphate of iron ; green vitriol, 
cor'a-coid. Shaped like a crow's beak. — c. 

process. A process of the scapula. 
cor'date. Heart-shaped. 

cord, um-bil'i-cal. The navel cord. [ma. 
co'ri-um. Deep layer of the cutis ; the der- 
cor'ne-a. Transparent front part of eyeball, 
cor-nic'u-la lar-yn'gis. Small cartilagin- 
ous nodules of the larynx, 
cor'nu. A horn-shaped process, 
cor'o-na-ry. Encircling, as a vessel or nerve. 
— c. arteries. Those supplying the heart 
substance. — c. sinus. A passage for b'.ood 
into right auricle — c. valve. Valve guard- 
ing opening of coronary sinus, 
cor'o-noid. Beak-like, 
cor'por-a. Plural of Corpus, 
corpse. A cadaver ; a dead body, 
cor'pu-len-cy. Obesity. 

cor'pus. A body : the human body : main 
or chief portion of an organ — c. cal-lo'- 
sum. A hard body uniting the cerebral 
hemispheres. — c. fim-bri-a'tum. The lat- 
eral thin edge of the taenia hippocampi, 
cor'pus-cle. A minute body; a cell, 
ccr-re-la'tion. Reciprocal relation, 
cor-rode'. To eat away gradually, [degrees, 
cor-ro'sion. Eating away of a part by slow 
cor-ro'sive. Having the power of corrod- 
ing. — c. alkali. Alkaline chemicals that 
eat away a part — c. poison. One that 
eats away the mucous membrane when 
taken internally. — c. sublimate. Bi- 

chlorid of mercury, 
cor-ro'sives. Agents that corrode, 
cor'tex. Outer layer of an organ, as cortex 
cos'tal. Pertaining to the ribs, [of brain. 
Cor'ti-an fibers. Those discovered by Corti. 



PS ACTIO AL DICTION ASY 



627 



cor'ti-cal. Pertaining to a cortex. — c. sub- 
stance. Outer or investing layer of organ. 

cor-y'za. Catarrhal inflammation of the 

cos'ta. Rib or rib-like structure [nose. 

cos'tal. Pertaining to the ribs. — c. spaces. 
Spaces between the ribs. [and vertebrse. 

cos-to-ver'te-bral. Pertaining to the ribs 

cot'y-loid. Cup-shaped. 

cra'ni-al. Pertaining to the cranium. 

cra'ni-um. The skull. 

cras-sa-men'tum. A clot, as of blood, [cle. 

cre-a'tin. Nitrogenous constituent of mus- 

cre-ma'tion. Burning of the dead body. 

cre'o-sote. An oily liquid obtained from 
the distillation of wood-tar. 

cres-cen'tic. Moon-shaped. 

crest. Upper part of an organ. — c. of the 
ilium. Expanded upper border of ilium. 

crib'ri-form. Shaped like a sieve. — c. 
plate. Perforated plate of ethmoid bone. 

cri'coid. Ring-like. — c. cartilage. Ring- 
like cartilage of larynx. 

croup. Inflammation of the trachea, with 
membranous deposits. [bar pneumonia. 

croup'ous pneu-mo ni-a. Same as acute lo- 

cru'ra. Plural of crus. [Poupart's ligament. 

cru'ral. Pertaining to the crura. — c. arch. 

crus. The leg; a leg-like structure. — c. 
cerebelli. Peduncles of cerebellum. — c. 
cerebri. Peduncles of cerebrum. 

crypt. A small sac or follicle in skin or 
mucous membrane. — c. of Lie'ber-kuhn. 
Those in small intestine. 

crys-tal-line. Like a crystal ; transparent. 
— c. lens or humor. Transparent lens of 
eye. 

cul-de-suc'. A sac-like cavity or passage 
without an outlet. — Douglas's c. A pro- 
longation of peritoneum into pelvis. 

cul'ture. Propagation of germs in suitable 
fluids or other media. — c. media. Sub- 
stance for cultivating bacteria. 

cu'ne-i-form. Wedge-shaped. 

cu-ta'ne-ous. Pertaining to the skin. 

cu'ti-cle. The epidermis or scarf-pin. 

cu'tis. The derma or true skin. — c. vera. 
The corium. 

cusp. Pointed crown of a tooth. 

cy'a-nosed Affected with cyanosis. 

cy-a-no'sis. Blue discoloration of the skin. 

cy-lin'dric-al. Pertaining to or in form of 

cyr-to'sis. Curvature of spine, [a cylinder. 

cyst. Any membranous sac or vesicle ; 
any abnormal sac containing fluid. 

cyst'ic (T) Pertaining to a cyst ; encysted. 
(2) Relating to urinary bladder or gall- 
bladder.— c. duct. Duct of gall-bladder. 



dac'tyl. A digit of the hand or foot. 

death. Cessation of life. — molecular d. 
Death of individual cells. — d.-rate. The 
annual mortality per 1,000. — d. -rattle. The 
gurgling sound in the throat of dying per- 
sons. — somatic d. Death of the whole 

dec'a-gram. Ten grams. [organism. 

dec'a-li-ter. Ten liters, equals 10,567 quarts. 

dec'a-me-ter. Ten meters. 

de-cay'. Putrefactive change. 

de-ceased'. Dead. [the fetus in utero. 

ce-cid'u-a. The membraneous envelop of 

de-cid'u-ous. Shedding; falling off. 

dec'i-gram. One-tenth of a gram ; 1.54 
Troy grains. 

dec'i-li-ter. One-tenth of a liter; 3.3S fluid 

dec'i-met-er. One-tenth of a meter, [ounces. 

de-cline'. Gradual decrease or wasting a- 

de-col-or-a'tion. Removing of color, [way. 

de-com-pose'. To separate into constituent 
parts or elements. 

de-com-po-si'tion. The act of separating 
the constituent elements of a body. 

def-e-ca'tion. Evacuation of the bowels. 

de-fect'. An imperfection ; absence of a part 

de-fi'bri-nate. To free from fibrin, [or organ. 

de-fi-bri-na'tion. The removal of fibrin 
from the blood or lymph. [course. 

de-flect'. To turn or bend from a straight 

de-gen'er-ate To decline in character ; be- 
come worse or inferior. 

de-gen-er-a'tion. Deterioration in struc- 
ture of a tissue or organ. — amyloid d. 
Starchy infiltration of tissues. — carcare- 
ous d. Deposit of lime in a part. — col- 
loid d. Jelly-like disorganization. — fatty 
d. Conversion of a tissue or organ into fat. 

deg-lu-ti'tion. Act or power of swallowing 

de-hy-dra'tion. The removal of constitu- 
tional water from a salt. [mer.ts, 

de-jec'ta. Discharges from bowels ; excre 

de-jec'tion. (1) Despondency. (2) A dis 
charge of fecal matter ; excrement. 

del-i-ga'tion. Application of a ligature. 

de-lir'i-um. Mental aberration due to dis- 
ease. — d. tremens. Mental aberration due 
to alcohol poisoning. 

de-liv'e-ry. Parturition ; child-birth. 

del'toid. Delta-shaped ; the deltoid muscle. 

de-men'ti-a. Profound mental incapacity. 

den'tate. Toothed ; notched. [teeth. 

den-tic'u-late. Furnished with minute 

den'tin. Pony structure of teeth. 

den'toid. Shaped like a tooth. 



628 



CIIAMPIOX TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



de-nude'. To lay bare. [offensive odors, l 
de-o'dor-ant. An agent that will destroy 
de-o'dor-ize. To free from odor. 
de-ox'y-gen-ate, To deprive of oxygen, 
de-pend'ent. Hanging down ; pendent. 
de-ple'tion. Diminishing the fluid of body, 
de-pos'it. A sediment. [process, 

dep-u-ra'tion. Purification ; a cleansing 
der'ma (or derm). The true skin. 
der'ma-toid. Like the skin. 
der'mis. Same as Derma, 
des'ic-cant. Drying; a drying agent. 
des-ic-ca'tion. The process of drying. 
des-qua-ma'tion. Scaling of cuticle, [sever. 
de-tach'. To separate from another ; to 
de-tri'tion. Wearing or wasting of a part. 
de-ve!'opment. Progression toward ma- 
turity, [normal. 
de-vi-a'tion. A turning aside from the 
dex'ter. Right ; on the right side. 
dex'trin. A soluble gummy substance ob- 
tained from starch, 
dex'trose. A sugar of the glucose group. 
di-a-be-tes. A disease characterized by an 

excessive flow or urine. 
di-ag-nose'. To make a diagnosis, 
di-ag-no'sis. Recognition or determination 
of a disease from its symptoms, [an object. 
di'a-gram. A figure giving the outlines of 
di-al'y-sis. The separation of parts, 
di-am'e-ter. A straight line passing through 

the center of a body or figure, 
di'a-phragm. Muscular wall between tho- 
rax and abdomen. [of bowels, 
di-ar-rhe'a. Morbidly frequent evacuation 
di-ar-rhe'al. Of the nature of diarrhea, 
di-ar-thro'sis. A freely movable articula- 
tion, [dilatation of the heart. 
di-as'to-le. Period of regular expansion or 
di-ath e-sis. Constitutional predisposition 
di-e-tet'ic. Pertaining to diet, [to disease, 
dif-fer-en-ti-a'tion. A specialization of tis- 
sues, organs, or functions, 
dif-fuse'. Scattered or spread about. — d. 
inflammation. Inflammation throughout 
all tissues of an organ. 
di-gas'tric. Having two bellies, [or chyle, 
di-ges'tion. Conversion of food into chyme 
di-gest-ive. Pertaining to or aiding diges- 
tion. — d. organs. Organs in which diges- 
tion is accomplished. 
dig'it. A finger or toe. 

dig'i-tal. Pertaining to the fingers or toes, 
di-la-ta'tion. Expansion of a vessel or or- 
gan. 

dil'u-enfc An agent increasing fluidity. 
d' lute'. To weaken. 



di-lu'tion. A weakening with water or 

some other fluid. 
dim-in'ish. To lessen, to reduce, 
dim-i-nu'tion. Act of diminishing. 
diph-the'ri-a. An acute infectious disease 

caused by the diphtheretic bacillus. 
dip-lo-coc'cus. A micrococcus whose spher- 
ules are joined two and two. [nial tables. 
dip'lo-e. Cellular bony tissue between cra- 
di-plo'ic. Pertaining to the diploe. 
dip-so-ma'ni-a. An uncontrollable desire 
for spiritous liquors. [a knife or trocar, 
di-rect'or. A grooved instrument to direct 
dis-charge'. A morbid secretion, 
dis'coid. Shaped like a disc. 
dis-col-or-a'tion. A strain ; a discolored 
spot or part. — post-mortem d. A dark or 
bluish color of the back aicer death. 
dis-ease'. A morbid condition of the body. 
— acute d. Marked by rapid onset and 
course.— constitutional d. One that affects 
a system of organs or the whole body. 
— chronic d. One that is slow in its course. 
— contagious d. One that is communicated 
by contact. — idiopathic d. Spontaneous; 
one that is not dependent on another. 
— infectious d. One that is produced by 
pathogenic germs. — organic d. One due to 
structural changes in the organ affected. 
— septic d. One due to pyrogenic or putre- 
factive germs within the body. — specific 
d. One due to a specific virus or poison 
within the body. — wool-sorters' d. An- 
thrax. — zymotic d. A term for the whole 
class of germ diseases, 
dis-in-fect'. To free from infection, 
dis-in-fect'ant. An agent that will destroy 
germs. [matter, 

dis-in-fec'tion. Purification from infectious, 
dis-in-fec'tor. An apparatus for disinfect- 
ing ; one who disinfects. [ponent parts, 
dis-in-te-gra'tion. Act of reducing to com- 
dis-in-ter'. Exhume ; disintomb. 
dis-lo-ca'tion. A displacement of organs 
or articular surfaces. [ganic structure. 
dis-or-gan-i-za'tion. A destruction of or- 
dis-sect'. To separate the parts. 
dis-sec'tion. A separating by cutting of 
parts of the body. — d. wound. A wound 
received by instruments while dissecting, 
dis-sem'i-nate. To scatter. [ease germ, 

dis-sem-i-na'tion. A scattering, as of dis- 
dis-so-lu'tion. Death ; process of dissolving, 
dis-solv'ent. A solvent ; resolvent, 
dis'tal. Peripheral ; from the center. — d. 
end. Farthest from center. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



629 



dis-tend' To expand ; lengthen. 

dis-til-la'tion. Vaporization of liquid with 
subsequent condensation. 

di-vi'sion. To divide ; divided into parts. 

dor'mant. Torpid ; resembling sleep. 

dor'sal. Pertaining to the back. 

dor'sum. The back ; posterior part. — d. of 
the tongue. Back part of tongue. 

Doug-las's cul-de-sac'. See Cul-de-sac. 

drachm (or dram). A weight of sixty 
grains. 

drain'age. Gradual removal of liquid from 
a cavity by gravitation through a tube. 

drop'si-cal. Pertaining to dropsy. 

drop'sy. Effusion of fluid into the tissues 
or cavities of body. 

drown'ing. Suffocation in water or other 
liquids. 

drum (of the ear). The tympanum. 

duct. A tube to convey a liquid. — bile d. 
See Bile Duct. — cystic d. Excretory duct 
of gall-bladder. — hepatic d. One receiving 
bile from liver. — lachrymal d. Conveys 
tears to lachrymal sac. — lymphatic d. 
Conveys lymph to right subclavian vein. 
— nasal d. Conveys tears from lachrymal 
sac. — salivary d. Conveys saliva from 
salivary glands. — Stenson's d. Conveys sa- 
liva secretion of parotid gland to mouth. 
— thoracic d. Conveys chyle to left sub- 
clavian vein. [sublingual gland. 

ducts of Ri-vi'ni-us. Salivary ducts from 

duc'tus. A canal or duct. — d. arteriosis. 
Continuation of pulmonary artery in 
fetus. — d. communis choledochus. See 
Choleduch Duct. — d. venosus. A fetal 
blood-vessel that joins umbilical vein 
to the ascending vena cava. 

du-o-de'nal. Pertaining to duodenum. 

du-o-de'num. First part of small intestine. 

du'pli-ca-ture. A doubling. 

du'ral. Relating to the dura. [the brain. 

du'ra ma'ter. The dense hard covering of 

dy-nam'ic. Pertaining to motion as the re- 
sult of force. 

dys'en-ter-y. Inflammation of rectum and 
colon with bloody discharges. 

dys-pep'si-a. Impaired digestion. 

dys-pne'a. Difficult or labored breathing. 



ear. Organ of hearing — e.-drum. See 
Tympanum. — e.-wax. See Cerumen. 

eb-ul-li'tion. Boiling. [travasated blood. 

ec-chy-mo'ma. A skin tumor caused by ex- 

ec-chy-mo'sis. Extravasation of blood into 
areolai I 



ec-chy-mot'ic. Pertaining to ecchymosis. 

ec'to-blast. Outside membrane of a cell. 

ec-to-zo'a. External parasites. [ease. 

ec-trot'ic. Preventing development of dis- 

ec-ze'ma. Inflammation of skin with ex- 
halation of lymph. [lar tissue. 

e-de'ma. Accumulation of serum in cellu- 

e-dem'a-tous. Relating to edema. 

ef-fete'. Worn out ; sterile ; barren, [nerve. 

ef'fer-ent. Conveying from the center, as a 

ef-flo-res'cence. Redness of skin ; rash. 

ef-fu'sion. Extravasation of blood into tis- 
sues or cavities. [bowels. 

e-ges'ta. Excreta ; discharges from the 

e-las'tic. Having elasticity. — e. tissue. 
That which stretches. [retracting. 

e-las-tic'i-ty. Property of stretching and 

el-bow. Articulation of arm and forearm. 

el'e-~ents. The ultimate constituents. 

el-e-men'ta-ry. Pertaining to element. 

el'e-va-tor. A muscle lifting a part. 

e-lim'i-nate. To remove ; cast out. [tion. 

e-lim-i-na'tion. Act of casting out ; excre- 

e-ma-ci-a'tion. A loss of flesh ; leanness. 

em'a-nate. That which proceeds from a 
body ; to give out, diffuse, shed. 

em-balm'er. One who embalms the dead. 

em-balm'ing. Filling of a body with a pre- 
servative and disinfectant fluid. — arte- 
rial e. Filling of all the tissues in which 
there are capillaries with fluid — cavity e. 
Filling of cavities with fluid — cranial e. 
Filling of tissues by injecting into the cra- 
nial cavity. — e. fluid. Fluid composed of 
antiseptics and disinfectants. — e. needle. 
A hollow-needle used to penetrate the 
walls of cavities for cavity embalming. 

em-balm'ment. The act of embalming. 

em'bo-le (or em'bo-lus). A blood-clot ob- 
structing a vessel. 

em'bo-lism. Obstruction of a blood-vessel 
by an embolus. — miliary e. A state in 
which many small blood-vessels are the 
seats of embolism. [month. 

em'bry-o. A fecundated germ up to fourth 

em'i-nence. A protuberance or process. 

e-mis'sion. A sending forth. 

em-py-e'ma. Pus in the pleural cavity. 

e-mul-si-fi-ca'tion. The process of forming 
an emulsion ; last stage of fatty degenera- 
tion, [pending oil in water. 

e-mul'sion. A milky fluid obtained by sus- 

en-am el. Hard substance enveloping crown 

en-ceph'a-lon. The brain tissue, [of tooth. 

en-cyst'ed. Enclosed in a sac or cyst. 



630 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



en-do-ar-te-ri'tis. Inflammation of intima 
of an artery. 

en-dem'ic. Peculiar to or prevailing in or 
among some countries or people ; circum- 
scribed. — e. disease. Not epidemic, [heart. 

en-do-car-di'tis. Inflammation of lining of 

en-do-car'di-um. The endothelial lining 
membrane of the heart. 

en-do-cra'ni-um. The dura mater. 

en'do-derm. Inner germ-layer of embryo. 

en-dos'te-um. The lining membrane of the 
medullary cavities of the bones. 

en-do-the'li-al. Pertaining to endothelium. 

en-do-the'li-um. Lining membrane of vas- 
cular and serous cavities. 

en'er-gy. Power or force of organism. 

en-gorge.' To fill with blood. 

en-gorge'ment. Vascular congestion. 

en-shea',.hed'. Within a sheath, [phoid fever. 

er.-ter'ic fever. Inflammation of bowels ; ty- 

en-ter-i'tis. Inflammation of intestines. 

en-ter-o-co-li'tis. Inflammation of small 
and lar~e intestines. 

en'ter-o-lith. A stone in intestines. 

en'trails. The intestines. 

en-vel'op. To enclose. [envelops. 

en-vel'cp-ment. A covering ; that which 

ep-idem'ic. A prevailing disease not con- 
fined locally. 

ep-i-der'mis. Outer layer of skin ; cuticle. 

ep-i-gastric. Pertaining to epigastrium. 

— e. region. The epigastrium. 
ep-i-gas'trium. Region over stomach 
ep-i-glot'tis. A thin cartilaginous plate 

over the larynx. 

ep'i-lep-sy. A nervous disease with loss of 
consciousness and tonic and clonic con- 

ep-i-lep'tic. Relating to epilepsy, [vulsions. 

ep-i-the'li-al. Pertaining to the epitheli- 
um. — e. cells. Cells in the epithelium. 

- e. tissue. Same as epithelium. 
ep-i-the'li-um. External layer of skin and 

minute layer lining alimentary canal. 
e-ro'sion. An eating away by corrosive 
agents or ulceration. [ease, 

e-rup'tion. A breaking out, as in skin dis- 
e-rup'tive fevers. Fevers characterized by 
an eruption. [by infection, 

er-y-sip'e-las. A disease of skin produced 
e-ry-the'ma. A superficial flush or redness 
of the skin. — e. no-do'sum. An inflamma- 
tory form marked by elevated nodules, 
es'char. A dry slough or crust of dead 
es-cha-rot'ic. Producing an eschar, [tissue. 
e-soph-ag'e-al. Pertaining to esophagus. 



e-soph'a-gus. Tube leading from pharynx 
to stomach, through which food is taken. 

es-sen'tial oil. Volatile or distilled oil from 
odoriferous vegetable substances. 

e'ther. Subtle fluid filling all space. 

eth'moid. Like a sieve; sieve-bone. 

e-ti-o-log'i-cal. Pertaining to etiology. 

et-i-ol'o-gy. Science of causes of disease. 

Eu-sta'chi-an. Pertaining to Eustachian 
tube or valve. — E. canal. A passage in 
temporal bone for Eustachian tube. — E. 
tube. Passage from middle ear to pharynx. 
— E. valve. A fold of membrane in the 
right auricle of heart in fetus. [bowels. 

e-vac-u-a'tion. Defecation; emptying the 

e-ver'sion. A turning backward or inside 

e-vis'cer-ate. The act of evisceration, [out. 

e-vis-cer-a'tion. Removal of the viscera. 

ev-o-lu'tion. Process of developing from a 
simple to a complex, specialized, perfect 
form- Ling away of a part. 

e-vul'sion. A plucking out ; forcible tear- 

ex-ac-er-ba'tions. Increased severity of 
symptoms. 

ex-co-ri-a'tion. Abrasion of epidermis. 

ex'cre-ment. The feces. 

ex-cre-men-li'tious. Pertaining to or pro- 
ducing excrement or feces. [body. 

ex-cres'cence. An abnormal outgrowth of 

ex-cre'ta. Natural discharges of body. 

excrete'. To throw off effete material. 

ex-cre'tion. (1) A discharge of waste pro- 
ducts of body. (2) Matter so discharged. 

ex'cre-to-ry. Pertaining to excretion. — e. 
organs. Organs by which excretion is car- 
ried on, as skin, lungs, and kidneys. 

ex-ha-la'tion. Vapor given off the body. 

ex-haus'tion. Tending to exhaust. 

ex-hu-ma'tion. Disinterment of the body. 

ex-hjme'. To disinter. 

ex-pec'to-rant. An agent promoting a se- 
cretion of bronchial mucus. 

ex-pec'to-rate. To spit forth, [from chest. 

ex-pec-to-ra'tion. Expulsion of secretions 

ex-pel'. To force out. [lungs ; death. 

ex-pi-ra'tion. Act of expelling air from 

ex-pul'sion. The act of expelling. 

ex-san'guine. Without blood. [in blood. 

ex-san'gui-nat-ed. Deprived of or deficient 

ex-tension. Act or process of extending; a 
reaching or stretching out ; enlargement ; 
increase of dimensions. 

ex-tir-pa'tion. Total removal of an organ 
or growth by surgical means. 

ex-trav'a-sate. Act of extravasation. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



631 



ex-trav-a-sa'tion. Effusion of fluid into 
tissues. [tion. 

ex-trem'i-ty. A limb ; an end or a termina- 

ex-u'date. Product of exudation. 

ex-u-da'tion. A morbid oozing out of fluids. 

ex-u'ded fi'brin. Fibrin that has passed out 
from the blood. 

eye. Organ of vision. — e.-ball. Globe • of 
the eye. — e.-brow. Hair, skin, and tissue 
of the eye. — e.lash. Hair of the eyes. — e.- 
lid. Protective covering of the eye. — e.- 
needle. A small hollow-needle used for 
cranial embalming. — e.-process. Insert- 
ing of a needle through eye-socket into 
cranial cavity. — e.-sight. Power or sense 
of sight. — e.-teeth. Canine teeth of upper 
jaw. 



fac'et. A small, plain articulating surface. 
fa'cial. Pertaining to the face. — f. nerves. 
Nerves that supply face, [acquired power, 
fac'ul-ta-tive. Pertaining to functional or 
Fah'ren-heit's thermometer. One in which 
the interval between freezing and boiling 
is divided into ISO equal parts or degrees. 
Zero being 32° below the freezing of water. 
Fal-lo'-pi-an. Pertaining to following. — F. 
canal. Same as Fallopian tubes. — F. liga- 
ment. The round ligament of uterus. — F. 
tubes. Two passages leading from ovaries 
to the womb. [sternum by cartilages, 

false ribs. Ribs that do not connect to the 
falx. Sickle-shaped. — f. cere'-eili. A sickle- 
like process between the cerebellar lobes. 
f. cerebri. That between cerebral lobes, 
far-i-na'ceous. Having the nature of far- 
ina; containing or yielding starch, 
fas'ci-a. Fibrous membrane covering mus- 
cles, arteries, and other tissues. — deep f. 
Strong fibrous layer which lies beneath 
the superficial fascia. — f. lata. The dense 
fibrous aponeurosis surrounding thigh. 
— superficial f. The layer beneath the skin 
extending over the whole body. — trans- 
versalis f. The layer beneath the trans- 
versalis muscle and peritoneum. 
fas'ci-cle. Small bundles of fibers, [fibers, 
fas-cic'u-lus. A bundle, especially of nerve- 
fat. Yellowish oily substance of adipose 
tissue. — f. cells. Cells containing oil in 
connective tissues, 
fat'ty. The nature of fat. — f. degeneration. 
See Degeneration. — f. tissue. Tissue that 
fau'cal. Pertaining to fauces, [contains fat. 
fau'ees. Throat from mouth to pharynx. 



feb'rile. Pertaining to fever. 

fe'cal. Pertaining to feces. 

fe'ees. Fxcrement ; dung. [lifi 

fec'un-date. To impregnate ; render pro- 

fem'o-ral. Pertaining to femur. — f. artery. 
The artery in femoral region. — f. canal, 
See Hunter's Canal. — f. ring. Abdom 
inal end of femoral canal. — f. vein. The 
vein accompanying femoral artery. 

fe'mur. The thigh-bone. 

fer'ment. A body exciting chemical changes 
in other matters when brought in contact. 

fer-men-ta'tion. Such changes as are ef- 
fected exclusively by the vital action of 

fer'rum. Iron. [ferments. 

fer'tile. Prolific. [Peculiar to the fetus. 

fe'tal. Pertaining to fetus. — f. circulation. 

fet'id. Having an offensive smell, as putrid 

fe'tor. Stench. [matter. 

fe'tus. Products of conception after fourth 
month of gestation, [sociated symptoms. 

fe'ver. A rise of body temperature with as- 

fi'ber. Filamentary organ or structure. 

fi'bril. A small fiber or filament. 

fi'brin. A nitrogenous proteid coagulating 
in exposed blood. 

fi'brin-o-r;en. The precursor of fibrin. 

fi-bro-a-re'o-lar. Composed of fibrous and 
areolar tissue. [cartilaginous tissue. 

fi-bro-car'ti-lage. A mixture of fibrous and 

fi'broid. Having a fibrous structure. — f. 
infiltration. Filling in or transforming 
tissue into fiber-like material. [fibers. 

fi'brous. Consisting of or pertaining to 

fil'a-ment. A thread-like structure. 

fil'i-form. Pike filament, thread-like. 

filTet. A loop-shaped bandage. 

film. A thin membrane or skin. 

fil-tra'tion. Process of straining or filtering. 

fis'sion. Reproduction by splitting into two 
or more equal parts. 

fis'sure. A groove or cleft. — f. of Sylvius. 
The cleft between anterior and middle 
lobes on under surface of brain. 

fis'tu-la (or fis'tule). An abnormal tube- 
like passage in the body giving vent to 
pus or other secretions. 

flae'eid. Soft; flabby. [a large cilium. 

fla-gel'lum (pi. -la). A lach-like appendage; 

flake. A small flat fragment. 

flesh tints. Colors to tint the skin ; to cover 

spots or discoloration. 
Flex. To bend. 
flexed. Bent or curved. 
flex-i-bil'i-ty. Being flexible, 
flex'ion. Process of bending. 



632 



CHAMP! OX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 



flex'or. Muscle that bends or flexes a part. 

flex'ure. The act of bending ; a bent part. 
- — sigmoid f. The bend in lower end of 
colon. 

float'er. A dead body which floats on the 
surface of water. 

float-ing. Free to move about. — f. ribs. The 
free ribs; the two lower pairs. — f. kidney. 
A movable or misplaced kidney, [lation. 

fluc-tu-a'tion. A wave-like motion ; oscil- 

flu'id. A substance whose molecules move 
freely upon one another. — amniotic f. See 
Liquor Amnii. — cerebrospinal f. Fluid be- 
tween the arachnoid membrane and pia 
mater. — f. dram. Equals 50.96 grains of 
distilled water; eighth part of a fluid 
ounce. — embalming f. See Embalming 
fluid. — f. ounce. Eight fluid drams. 

flu-id'i-ty. State of being fluid. 

flu'o-rid. A binary compound of fluorin. 

flu'o-rin. A gaseous element resembling 
chlorin in chemical properties. 

flush'ing. Act of colormg the surface. — f. 
of the face. Causing surface of face to be 
colored red or blue while injecting arter- 
ies. 

fo'cus. Principal seat of a disease ; meeting 
point of reflected rays. 

fol'li-cle. A small secretory sac or tube. 

fol'i-cles of Lie'ber-kuhn. Mucous follicles 
in small intestine. 

fol-lic u-lar. Containing follicles. 

fo'mes (id. fom'i-tes). Any porous sub- 
food. Aliment, [stance absorbing contagion. 

foot. The organ at the extremity of the 
leg. 

fo-ra'men (pl.-mi-na). A passage or an 
opening. — f. ovale. Opening between 
right and left auricles in fetus — f. mag- 
num. Large opening in base of skull. 

fore'arm. Arm between wrist and elbow.' 

for'eign body. An irritant substance in a 
wound or cavity. 

for'mal. An anesthetic and hypnotic. 

for-mal'de-hyde. See Formic Aldehyde. 

for'ma-lin. A 4(1 aqueous solution of for- 
mic aldehyde, [ful disinfectant properties. 

for'mic al'de-hyde. A gas possessing power- 

fos'sa. A depression, furrow, or sinus. 

Fow'ler's solution. A solution of arsenic. 

frac'ture. Breaking of a bone. 

fre'num. A fold of membrane acting as a 
check. — f. of the tongue. Fold of mem- 
brane underneath tongue. 

fri'a-ble. Easily broken down. 

fric'tion. The act of rubbing ; attrition. 

fron'tal. Bone of forehead. ("liver turns. 

ful'crum. Point or pivot about which the 



fu'mi-gate. Act of exposing to disinfectant 
vapors. [vapors, 

u-mi-ga'tion. Exposure to disinfectant 
u'mi-ga-tor. One who or an apparatus that 
u'ming. Emitting fumes. [fumigates, 

unc'tion. Normal or special action of a 
un'da-ment. The base; the anus. [part, 
dus Rounded end or base of an organ, 
u'si-ble. That which can be easily fused 
u'si-form. Spindle-shaped. [or melted, 

u'sion. Liquefying a solid by heat. 



gall. The bile. — g-bladder. A pear-shaped 
sac in right lobe of liver, reservoir for the 
bile.— g.-cyst. The gall-bladder. — g.-ducts. 
The ducts conveying bile. — g.-stones. Cal- 
careous concretions in gall-bladder and 
its ducts. [quarts. 

gal'lon. A standard liquid measure ; four 

gam-boge.' Gum-resin obtained from Gar- 
cinia hamburii. [center. 

gan'gli-on. A semi-independent nervous 

gan'grene. Mortification or death of soft 
tissue. — senile g. Gangrene of the ex- 
tremities in the aged. 

gas. An aeriform substance. 

gaseous. Of the nature of gas. 

gas'tric. Pertaining to stomach. — g. ca- 
tarrh. A flow producted by irritation of 
gastric mucous membrane. — g. juice. 
Normal secretion of stomach. 

gas-tri'tis. Inflammation of stomach. 

gas-tro-en-ter'ic. Pertaining to both stom- 
ach and intestines. [ach and bowels. 

gas-tro-en-ter-i'tis. Inflammation of stom- 

gas-tro-ep-i-plo'ic. Pertaining to both 
stomach and omentum. 

gas-tro-in-tes'ti-nal Pertaining to stom- 
ach and omenta. — g. catarrh. Inflam- 
mation of mucous membrane of stomach 

gath'er-ing. An abscess. [and intestines. 

gel'a-tin. A nitrogenous principle obtained 
by boiling certain animal tissues. — g. cul- 
ture. Micro-organisms grown in gelatin 
solution. [like 

gel-at'i-nous. Resembling gelatin ; jelly- 

gen'er-ate. To beget ; to produce. 

gen-er-a'tion. The begetting of offspring. 

gen'i-tal. Pertaining to organs of genera- 
tion, [a spore. 

germ. A microbe or bacterium ; an ovum ; 

germ'i-cide. Agent which destroys germs. 

ger'mi-nal. Pertaining to a germ, [or germ. 

ger-mi-na'tion. The development of a seed. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



G33 



gland. A secretory organ ; a lymphatic gan- 
glion. — agminate g. In the small intes- 
tine ; Peyer's patches. — axillary g. Lym- 
phatics in the armpit. — blood g. See 
Ductless. — ductless g. Without ducts. 
— parotid g. A large salivary gland in 
front and below the ear. — racemose g. 
Arranged in clusters like grapes. — seba- 
ceous g. In the skin. — solitary g. An iso- 
lated gland of the intestines. — sublingual 
g. Salivary glands in floor of mouth. 
— submaxillary g. Salivary glands in 
floor of mouth. — thymus g. Situated at 
root of neck in front ; disappears before 
maturity. — thyroid g. A blood-gland sit- 
uated in neck over upper end of trachea, 
glan'du-lar. Pertaining to glands, 
gle'noid. .V hollow, shallow pit. — g. cav- 
ity. In the scapula for articulation with 
glob'u-lar. Shaped like a globe, [humerus, 
glob'ule, or glo'bus. A small spherical 

body, 
glob'u-lin. Albuminous constituent of 
glos'sa. The tongue. [blood-corpuscles, 

glos'sal. Pertaining to tongue, 
glos-so-ep-i-glot'tic. Pertaining to tongue 
and epiglottis. [and pharynx. 

glos-so-pha-ryn'ge-al. Pertaining to tongue 
glu'cose. Grape-sugar. 

glu-te'al. Pertaining to buttocks. — g. re- 
gion. Region of or around buttocks, 
glu'ten. Nitrogenous element of wheat, 
glu'ti-nous. Viscid ; glue-like. [and fats, 
glyc'er-in. The sweetish principle of oils 
gly'co-gen. Animal starch ; found in blood 

and liver. 
goi'ter. An enlargement of thyroid gland, 
gon-or-rhe'a. .V contagious inflammation 
with a purulent discharge from genitals. 
gon-or-rhe'al. Pertaining to gonorrhea, 
gout. Disease associated with joint inflam- 
mation, swelling, uric acid in blood, etc. 
gout'y. Pertaining to or of nature of gout. 
— g. habit. The peculiar state of body 
predisposing gout, 
giac'i-lis. Rectus internus femoris muscle. 
gram. Unit of measure of metric system ; 

L5. 13 Troy grains. 
gran'u-lar. Composed of grains or granula- 
tions. — g. tissue. Form of epithelial tissue, 
gran'ule. A spore, g. layer. One of the 
retinal layers; subcortical layer of cere- 
bellum. [granule. 

gran'u-lose. A soluble portion of starch- 
grav-i-ta'tion. Force with which bodies are 
drawn to earth's center. 



grav'i-ty. Property of possessing weight. 
gray mat'ter. Cortical substance of brain. 
grip. See Influenza, 
gristle. Cartilage. 

gris'tly. Cartilage-like. [trunk, 

groin. A depression between thigh and 
gul'let. The esophagus. [syphilis, 

gum'ma. A soft gummy tumor due to 
gum'ma-tous. Resembling a gumma, 
gut'tur-al. Pertaining to the throat. 



hair. Hirsute appendage of the skin. — h.- 
bulb. Expanded portion at lower end of 
hair-root. — h. follicle. A recess lodging 
the root of a hair. 
hair'y. Characterized by hair, 
hal'lux. The great toe. 
hal'o-gens. The electronegative elements, 

chlorin, bromin, iodin and fluorin. 
hal'oid. Any salts of the halogens, 
ham'strings. Posterior muscles of thigh, 
hand. Wrist, palm, and fingers together of 
upper extremity. — h. protector. An anti- 
septic ointment for applying to the hands 
when operating. [ing at root of nail, 

hang'nail. A fragment of epidermis hang- 
hard'en-ing compound. A desiccating mix- 
head. Upper part of body. [ture. 
heart. Hollow muscular organ, center of 
circulatory system. — h. clot. Coagulation 
of blood in cardiac cavities, 
heat-stroke. Sunstroke. 
hec'tic. Pertaining to phthisis.— h. flush. 

Reddening of cheeks in tuberculosis, 
hec'to-gram. One hundred grams. 
hec'to-li-ter. One hundred liters. 
hec'to-me-ter. One hundred meters, [calcis. 
heel. Hinder part of foot. — h.-bone. The os- 
he'mal. Pertaining to blood or the vascular 
he-mat'ic. Bloody [system, 

hem'a-tin. A brown pigment from hemo- 
globin, [found in blood. 
hem'a-to-blast. A minute colorless disk 
hem'a-to-cele. A blood tumor, 
hem'a-to-cyst. A blood-cyst, 
hem'a-toid. Plood-like. 
l.em-a-toid'in. Same as Bilirubin. 
hem-a-tol'o-gy. The science of the blood. 
l:em-a-to'ma. Same as Hematocele, 
hem-a-to'sis. Blood formation, 
hem-a-tu'ri-a. Blood in the urine, [body, 
hem-i-ple'gi-a. Paralysis of one side of 
hem'is-phere. A half of a sphere, 
hem-o-glo'bin. Coloring-matter of red cor- 
hem-op'ty-sis. Spitting of blood, [puscles. 



034 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALM1XG 



hem'or-rhage. A flow of blood from vessels. 

nem'or-rhoids. Small blood tumors in the 
anal orifice; piles. [rhoids. 

hem-or-rhoid'al. Pertaining to hemor- 

he-pat'ic. Pertaining to liver. — h. artery. 
One that supplies the liver. — h. cancer. 
Cancer of liver. — h. duct. See Duct, He- 
patic. — h. lobes. Anatomical division of 
liver. — h. veins. Three veins running 
from liver to the inferior vena cava. 

hep-a-ti'tis. Inflammation of the liver. 

hep-a-ti-za'tion. A conversion into a liver- 
like substance. 

he-red'i-ta-ry. Acquired by inheritance. 

he-red'i-ty. The influence of parents upon 
offsprings. [sealed. 

her-rr.et'ic. Impervious to air and fluids; 

her'ni-a. Protrusion of a viscus from its 
normal position; rupture. [nature. 

het-er-o-ge'ne-ous. Differing in kind or 

hi-a't-s. Cap, opening, or chasm. 

hi-ber-na'tion. A sleeping through winter. 

hi'lum of the kid'ney. Depression in center 

hinge-joint. See Diarthrosis. [of kidney. 

hip. Upper part of thigh. — h.-bone. The 
femur. — h. -joint. Articulation of femur 
and innominate bone. 

hir-sute'. Covered with hair; hairy. 

his-tol'o-gy. Study of intimate structure of 
tissues. [projections; from atrophy. 

hob'nail liver. One marked with nail-like 

holTow-needle. An embalming-needle. 

ho-mo-ge'ne-ous. Having the same nature. 

hu'me-rus. Large bone of the arm. 

hu'mor. Any fluid of the body. 

Hun'ter's ca-nal'. See Canal, Hunter's. 

hy'a-loid. Transparent ; resembling glass. 
— h. membrane. Transparent membrane 
enclosing vitreous humor. 

hy'dra-ted. Combined with water. 

hy-dre'mi-a. Excess of water in the blood. 

hy-dro-ceph'a-lus. A collection of water in 
head ; dropsy of brain. 

hy-dro-chlo'ric. Containing chlorin in 
combination with hydrogen. — h. acid. A 
colorless corrosive compound, exceeding- 
ly soluble in water, being an effective ger- 
micide ; muriatic acid. 

hy'dro-gen. .V light gaseous element ; a 
constituent of water. — h. peroxid. A color- 
less oily fluid used as a disinfectant. — car- 
bureted h. A compound of hydrogen with 
carbon, etc. 

hy-dro-tho'rax. Dropsy of chest. 

hy'gi-ene. The science of health. 

hy-gi-en'ic. Pertaining to health. 



hy'oid. Having the form of the Greek letter 
L'psilon. — h. bone. A U-shaped bone at 
the base of the tongue. 

hy-os-cy'a-mus. Henbane, [blood in a part. 

hy-per-e'mi-a. Abnormal accumulation of 

hy-per-pla'si-a. A hypertrophy of tissue. 

hy-per-py-rex'i-a. Excessive high temper- 
ature, [of a part or organ. 

hy-per'tro-phy. Abnormal increase in size 

hyp'no-tism. State of artificial somnambu- 

hy-po-car'di-um. Below the heart, [lence. 

hyp-o-chon'dri-um. Beneath the cartilage; 
regions of the abdomen at each side of the 
epigastrium. 

hyp-o-der'mic. Subcutaneous. — h. injec- 
tion. Injecting beneath the skin. 

hyp-o-gas'tric. Pertaining to the hypogas- 
trium. — h. space. Center space in lower 
part of abdomen. [inal region. 

hyp-o-gas'trium. Lower anterior abdom- 

hy-pos'ta-:i3. Blood settled into dependent 
parts ; sediment. 

hy-po-stat'ic. Pertaining to hypostasis. — h. 
congestion. Settling of blood into a part. 

I 

ic-ter'ic. Pertaining to jaundice. 

ic'ter-us. Jaundice. 

ic'tus. A stroke. — i. so'lis. Sunstroke. 

il'e-us. Pertaining to ileum. 

il-e-o-ce'cal. Pertaining to ileum and ce- 
cum. — i. valve. Valve between ileum and 
cecum. [and colon. 

il-e-o-co-li'tis Inflammation of ileum 

il-e-o-co'lic. Pertaining to ileum and 

il'eum. Lower % of small intestine .[colon. 

il'i-ac. Pertaining to os ilium or region 
ilium. — i. crest. High broadened edge of 
ilium. — i. venter. Iliac region of belly, 
i. region. Outer and lower part of ab- 

il'i-um. Hip-bone. [domen. 

im-bi-bi'tion. Absorption of fluids ; process 

im'bri-ca-ted. Overlapped. [of imbibing. 

im-mo-bil'i-ty. State of being fixed. 

im-mer'sion. Plunging of body into liquid. 

im-mune'. Safe from attack of disease. 

im-mu'ni-ty. Freed from risk of infection. 
— active i. That conveyed by recovery 
from infectious disease. — congenital i. 
That with which the individual is born. 
— moderate i. Those partially immune. 
— passive i. That conferred by introduc- 
tion of antitoxins or vaccines. 

im-pact'ed. Wedged in. [wedged in. 

im-pac'tion. Concussion ; state of being 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



635 



m-pede'. To place obstacles in the way. 
m-per'vi-ous. Not permitting a passage, 
m'pli-cate. That which is necessarily in- 
volved or implied, 
m-preg-na'tion. Fecundation, 
rn-pres'sion. A hollow or depression, 
m-pure'. Containing some foreign sub- 
m-pu'ri-ty Opposite of purity. [stance, 
m-pu-tres'ci-ble. Not liable to putrefac- 
n-an'i-mate. Not animate; dead. [tion. 
n-a-ni'tion. Emptiness ; exhaustion from 
starvation. 

n-ar-tic'u-late. Not joined or articulated, 
n-can-des'cent. Luminous from heat, 
n-cin'er-ate. Act of rendering to ashes, 
n-cin-er-a'tion. Cremation ; reducing to 
n-cip'i-ent. Beginning. [ashes, 

n-cised'. Cut. — i. wound. A cleanly cut 
n-ci'sion. Act of cutting into. [wound. 
n-ci'sor. One of the four front teeth in 
n-ci'sure. A slit or notch. [each jaw. 

n-com-bus'ti-ble. Incapable of burning, 
n-com-pat'i-ble. Not being capable of com- 
bining in solution. 

n-com'pe-tence. Not capable of perform- 
ing the natural functions, [neous mass, 
n-cor-po-ra'tion. Making into a homoge- 
n'cre-ment. Increase or growth. 
n-cu-ba'tion. The period between the in- 
ception of a contagion and the appearance 
of a disease. [finger of the hand, 

n'cus. Middle bone of ear; index; the first 
n-dent'. .V shallow depression. [sion. 

n-den-ta'tion. A notch, dent, or depres- 
n'di-ca-tor. The index finger, 
n-dig'e-nous. Native to a place, 
n-di-ges'tion. See Dyspepsia, 
n-dis-po-si'tion. Any slight ailment, 
n'dol. Decomposition product of pancreas, 
n'du-rate. Hardened. [part, 

n-du-ra'tion. Hardening of a tissue or 
n-ert'. Slow in motion; possession of in- 
n-er'tia. Sluggishness ; inactivity. [ertia. 
n-e-las'tic. Xot elastic; incapable of 
changing shape. 

n-farct'. An obstruction or plug. [bolus, 
n-farc'tion. Plugging of vessel by an em- 
n-fect'. To communicate disease germs, 
n-fec'tion. Communication of a disease- 
germ ; matter containing disease germs, 
in-fec'tious. Of the nature of infection; 
contagious. 

n-fe-cun'di-ty. Sterility; barrenness, 
n-fe'ri-or. Lower. 
n-fil'trate. To ooze into interstitial spaces. 



in-fil-tra'tion. A fluid effusion into an organ 
or tissue. — cal-ca're-ous i. Deposit of lime 
within a tissue. — cellular i. An infiltra- 
tion of tissues with round cells. — fatty i. 
A deposit of fat or oil in the tissues. — pig- 
mentary i. Deposit of pigments in tissues. 
— waxy i. A deposit of a waxy substance. 
in'finite. Immeasurable, 
in-fin-i-tes'i-mal. Infinitely small, 
in-firm'. Weak ; feeble, 
in-flame'. To undergo inflammation, 
in-flam-ma'tion. A morbid condition with 
hyperemia, pain, heat, swelling, and dis- 
ordered function.— i. of the bowels. That 
affecting walls of intestines.— i. of the 
kidneys. Acute nephritis, 
n-fla'tion. Distention with air. 
n-flu-en'za. See Grip. 

n-frac'tion. Incomplete fracture of a bone, 
n-fra-or'bit-al. Below the orbit. 
n-fun-dib'u-lum. Funnel-shaped. — i. of 
the brain A mass of gray matter attached 
to pituitary gland.— i. of the kidney. One 
primary divisions of pelvis of a kidney. 
— i. of the lung. Any of the ultimate ex- 
pansions of a bronchiole. 
in-fu'sion. Slow injection of fluid into a 
vein ; that which is infused. 
n-fu-so-ri-a. A class of protozoa, [as food, 
n-ges'ta. Substances introduced into body 
n-ges'tion. Act of introducing food into 
body, as by eating, 
in-gre'di-ent. Any part of compound, 
in'guen. The groin. 

in'gui-nal. Pertaining to groin.— i. canal. 
A passage from internal to external ab- 
dominal rings. [vapors, 
in-ha-la'tion. Inbreathing of air or other 
in-hale'. To inspire or draw air into lungs, 
in-hib'it. To check or restrain. 
in-hi-bi'tion. Restraint of organic activity 
from nerve-actions. 

n-hume'. To place in the ground, as a 
n-im'i-cal. Adverse; incompatible, [body, 
n-ject'. Act of injecting. 
n-jec'tion. Forcing of a liquid into a ves- 
sel or cavity of body. [fluid, 
n-ject'or. An instrument for injection of 
n'let of pelvis. Upper orifice of true pelvis, 
n-ner-va'tion. A discharge of nervous 
force; function of the nervous system, 
n'no-cent. Benign ; not harmful. 
n-noc'u-ous. See Innoxious, 
n-nom'i-nate. Nameless. — i. artery. Larg- 
est branch of aorta at arch. — i. ve'n. The 



636 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 



branches formed by junction of internal 

jugulars and subclavian veins, 
in-nom-i-na'tum. The hip-bone. 
in-nox'ious. Not harmful ; innocent. 
in-oc-u-la'tion. Introduction of specific 

virus into system. 
in-odorous. Without odor. 
in-or-gan'ic. Devoid of organized structure. 
in-os'cu-lat-ing. Directly joining, [tomosis. 
in-os-cu-la'tion. Union of two vessels. Anas- 
in'quest. A judicial inquiry. [insects, 

in-sec'ti-cide. Preparation for destroying 
in-sen'si-ble. Without sense of feeling, 
in-ser'tion. Attachment, as of a muscle. 

— i. of a muscle. The more movable attach- 
in-sid'i-ous. Not manifest; hidden, [raent. 
in-si'tu. In a given or natural position. 
in-sol'u-ble. Incapable of solution, 
in-som'ni-a. Inability to sleep, 
in-spi-ra'tion. Inhalation of air into the 
lungs. — respiratory i. Pertaining to res- 
in'step. Arch of the foot. [piration. 

in'stru-ment. A mechanical tool. — em- 
balming i. A mechanical tool used in em- 
in'su-lar. Isolated in condition, [balming. 
in'su-late. To isolate. [of susceptib.lity. 

in-sus-cep-ti-bil'i-ty. Immunity ; a want 
in-tact'. Left complete or unimpaired, 
in-teg'u-ment. The skin. [tivity. 

in-ten'si-ty. High degree of power or ac- 
in-ter'. To place in a grave or tomb. 
in-ter-ar-tic'u-lar. Situated between joints. 
— i. cartilage. Cartilage between joints. 

in-ter-cel'lu-lar. Between cells. 

in-ter-cos'tal. Between the ribs. — i. spaces. 
Space- between ribs, [or intervening within. 

in-ter-cur'rent. Occurring between ; added 
ln-ter-me'di-ate. Being in a middle position. 

in-ter-mit'tent. Occuring at intervals. — • 
i. fever. A fever with period of apyrexia. 

in-ter-mus'cu-lar. Between muscles, [rinth. 

in-ter'nal. On the inside. — i. ear. The laby- 

in-ter-os'se-ous. Between the bones. — i. 
tissue. Tissues between the bones. 

in-ter-scap'u-lar. Between the shoulder- 

in-ter-space'. Spaces between. [blades. 

in'ter-sti-ces. Spaces ; intervals. [tance. 

in'ter-val. Space or lapse of time or dis- 

in-tes'ti-nal. Pertaining to intestine. — i. 
canal. Tube leading from mouth to anus. 

in-tes'tine. Digestive tube from stomach to 

in'ti-ma. Innermost coat of a vessel [anus. 

in-tra-ab-dom'i-nal. Within the abdomen. 

in-tra-ar-te'ri-al. Within the artery. 

in-tra-va-sa'tion. Passage of morbid mat- 



ter into the vessels, [intestine into another. 

in-tus-sus-cep'tion. Slipping of one part of 

in-va'sion. Onset of a disease. 

in-ver'sion. Turning inside out. 

in-vest'. To surround or enclose. 

in-volve'. Implicate. 

in-vol'un-ta-ry. Independent of will. — i. 
muscle. One not under control of will. 

i'o-did. A compound of iodin. [element. 

i'o-din. One of the halogens ; a non-metcllic 

i-od'o-form. A yellow antiseptic compound 
with a strong peculiar odor, formed by the 
action of iodin on alcohol in an alkaline 
solution. [iodin and ozone. 

i-od'o-zone. An antiseptic compound of 

i'ris. Colored membrane of anterior part of 

i-ri'tis. Inflammation of the iris, [the eyes. 

ir'ri-ta-ble. Easily inflammed or irritated. 

ir-ri-ta-bil'i-ty. Susceptible to excitement. 

ir'ri-tant. An agent producing irritation. 
— i. poison. A poison that causes irrita- 
tion of the mucous membrane. 

ir-ri-ta'tion. Excitement ; stimulation. 

is'chi-ac, is'chi-al. Pertaining to ischium. 

is'chi-um. Seat-bone ; inferior part of hip- 
bone, [bladders of the sturgeon. 

i'sin-glass. A gelatin made from the air- 

i-so-ther'mal. Of equal temperature. 

i-tis. A suffix meaning inflammation. 



jaun'dice. A yellow color of skin, due to 
obstructed excretion of bile. 

jaw. Either of two maxillary bones. 

je-ju'num. Upper 2-5 of portion of small in- 
testine that succeeds the duodenum. 

joint. An articulation. 

ju'gu-lar. Pertaining to throat. — j. veins. 
Certain veins of neck. 

juice. Any of secretions of the body. — gas- 
tric j. That of the stomach. — intestinal j 
That of intestinal walls. — pancreatic j 
That of the pancreas. 
I junc'tion. Joining together. 
| jux-ta-po-si'tion. In close relationship. 

K 

ker'a-tin. A nitrogenous compound form- 
ing essential ingredients of bony tissue. 

kid'ney. Organ secreting urine. 

kid'neys, Bright's disease of. Certain dis- 
eases described by Dr. Bright. 

kil'o-gram. One thousand grams. 

kil'o-li-ter. One thousand liters. 

kil'o-me-ter. One thousand meters. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



637 



knee. Joint between thigh and leg. — k-cap. 

The patella. — k-pan. See Knee-cap. 
knuck'les. The joints of the phalanges. 



la'bial. Pertaining to lips. 

la'bi-um (pl.-bi-a). The lip. [work. 

lab'o-ra-to-ry. A place for experimental 

lab'y-rinth. The internal ear. 

lac'er-ate. To tear. 

lac-er-a'tion. Mechanical rupture. 

lach'ry-mal. Pertaining to tears. — I. duct 
or canal. Passage that carries tears from 
eyes to nose. — 1. 'gland. Organ that se- 
cretes the tears. — I. sac. Upper rounded 
extremity of the lachrymal duct. 

lach'ry-mose. Shedding tears. [milk. 

lac-to-al-bu'min. Albumin as found in 

lac-to-glob'u-lin. Globulin as found in milk. 

lac'tose. Sugar of milk. [tarrhal fever. 

la grippe (grip). Contagious, epidemic ca- 

la-mel'la. A thin plate or scale. — 1. of bone. 
Rings around the Haversian canals. 

lam'el-lar. Disposed in lamellas. 

lam'i-na. A thin layer or scale. 

lar-yn-ge'al. Pertaining to larynx. 

lar-yn-gi'tis. Inflammation of larynx. 

lar'ynx. Upper part of windpipe. 

la'tent. Concealed ; not manifest. — 1. 

period. Time required for incubation of 

lat'er-al. Pertaining to the side, [disease. 

lay'er. A mass of nearly uniform thick- 
ness spread over an area. 

lead. A bluish-white metal. 

leak'age. Act or process of leaking. 

lec'i-thin. A phosphorized substance found 
widely in the body. 

leg. From knee to ankle-joint. 

lens. A transparent disc refracting light. 
— crystalline 1. See Crystalline. 

lep'ro-sy. An endemic chronic malignant 
disease. [jury or disease. 

le'sion. Structural tissue change from in- 

leu'co-cyte. A white blood-corpuscle. 

leu-co-cy-the'mi-a. An abnormal increase 
of the white blood corpuscles. [cocytes. 

leu-co-cy-to'ma. .V tumor containing leu- 

leu-co'sis. Any disease of lymphatics; ab- 
normal pallor of skin. 

leu-ke' Cor ce) mi-a. Fatal blood disease with 
a great increase of white blood-corpuscles. 

le-va'tor. A muscle that elevates a part. 

lev'u-lose. Natural sugar of fruits. 

Lie'ber-kuhn's crypts. See Glands. 

life. Power by which an organism exists 
and exercises its function. 



lig'a-ment. A band of fibrous tissue bind* 
ing parts together. [hip-joint. 

lig-a-men'tum te'res. Round ligament in 

li-ga'tion. Operation of tying, as of an ar- 

lig'a-ture. Material used for tying, [tery. 

lime. Calcium oxid. 

lim'pid. Crystal ; clear ; transparent. 

line. Unit of length ; twelfth of an inch. 

lin'e-a. A line or band.— 1. alba. White 
line in middle of abdomen. 

lin'e-ar. Pertaining to linea or a line. 

lin'gual. Shaped like the tongue. 

lin'gu-la. A small lobe of the brain. 

lint'in. Trade-name for compressed ab- 
sorbent cotton. 

lip. One of the two fleshy folds surrounding 
orifice of the mouth; border of a wound. 

lip-o'ma. A fatty tumor. 

liq-ue-fac-tion. To render into liquid. 

liq'uid. A substance that flows. 

liq'uor. A liquid solution. — 1. am'ni-i. Fluid 
surrounding the fetus. — 1. san'guin-is. 
Blood-plasm, [equal to 1.056 U. S. quarts. 

li'ter. Unit of capacity in metric system, 

liv'er. Largest glandular organ of body, 
secreting bile. — fatty 1. One marked with 
fatty degeneration and infiltration. — 
floating 1. Movable liver. — hobnail 1. See 
Hobnail liver. [ashey hue. 

livid. Discolored from congestion, of an 

lo'bate. Having lobes. 

lobe. A rounded division of an organ. 

lob'u-lar. Pike a lobe. 

lob'u-la-ted. Composed of lobes. 

lob'ule. A small lobe. 

lo'bus. Pobe. — 1. cau-da'tus — 1. quad-ra'- 
tus, — 1. Spi-ge'li-i. Small lpbes of the 
liver. 

lo'cal-ized. Confined to a certain area. 

lock'jaw. Spasm of muscles of mastication. 

lo-co-mo'tor. Relating to locomotion. — -1. 
a-tax'i-a. An incoordination of muscles 
of locomotion. 

lu'bri-cate. To cause to slip or glide easy. 

lu'bri-ca-tor. Making smooth or slippery. 

lvm-ba'go. Rheumatic pain in loins. 

lum'bar. Pertaining to loins. [gan. 

lu'men (pl.-mi-na). Cavity of a tubular or- 

lung. One of two organs of respiration. 
— 1. fever. Croupous pneumonia. — 1. tissue. 
Tissue of the lungs. 

lu'nu-la. Semilunar area at root of nails. 

lymph. A colorless alkaline fluid of lym- 
phatics.- l.-cell. A lymph leucocyte. 

lym-phat'ic. Pertaining to lymph or lym- 



638 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



phatics. — 1. circulation. That of the lym- 
phatics.— 1. duct See Duct.— 1. gland. 
See Gland. — 1. system. System of lacteals 
and vessels which carry lymph. — 1. vessel. 
A tube for collecting lymph. 

lym-phat'ics. Capillary tubes pervading 
the body and carrying lymph. 

lym'phoid. Having character of lymph. 

ly'sol. A disinfectant from cresol, a pro- 
duct of coal-tar. 

M 

mac'er-ate. To reduce to a soft mass by 
-oai.nig or digestion. [organism. 

mac-ro-coc'cus. A large unicellular micro- 

mac-ro-scop'ic. Invisible to the naked eye. 

mac'u-la. A spot or small patch. 

mac'u-lar. Pertaining to macula. 

mac'u-la-ted. Spotted. [ism. 

mag-net'ic. Possessing power of magnet- 

mag'net-ism. Power of magnet to attract 
or repel other masses. 

mal'a-dy. An illness or disease. 

maTar. Pertaining to cheek-bone. 

ma-la'ri-al. Pertaining to malaria. — m. 
fever. Periodic fever of malaria. 

ma-lig'nant. Virulent ; fatal. — m. cholera. 
Asiatic cholera. — m. edema. Edematous 
anthrax. — m. pustule. A small circum- 
scribed, inflamed elevation of cuticle ; pus- 
tular anthrax. — m. vesicle. See Anthrax. 

mal-le'o-lar. Pertaining to malleolus. 

mal-le'o-lus. A hammer-head-shaped pro- 
cess of bone one on either side of the 
ankle-joint. Won. 

mal-nu-tri'tion. Poor or abnormal nutri- 

mal-o'dor-ous. Having a disagreeable 
smell ; obnoxious. [stase in barley. 

malt'ose. Sugar derived from action of dia- 

mam'ma. The breast. 

mam'mal. An animal, the female of which 
has mammas. 

mam-maTi-a. Animals that nourish their 
young by milk-secreting glands. 

mam'ma-ry. Pertaining to mammas. — m. 
gland. The milk-secreting gland. 

mam-mil'la. A nipple. 

mam'mil-la-ted. Furnished with round-like 
protuberances or wart-like projections. 

man'di-ble. The lower jaw. 

man-dib'u-la. Pertaining to lower jaw. 

ma'ni-a. Delirium or madness. — m. a po'tu. 
See Delirium Tremens. [part. 

man'i-kin. A model of a human being or a 

ma-nu'bri-um. First bone of sternum. 

ma'nus. The hand. 



ma-ras'mus. A wasting or emaciation. 

mar'gin-al. Pertaining to or at border of. 

mar'row. Fatty substance in cavity of long 
bones. [mastication. 

mas-se'ter. A strong facial muscle aiding 

mas-ti-ca'tion. Process of chewing. 

mas'toid. Shaped like a nipple. — m. pro- 
cess. At lower part of mastoid portion of 

ma-te'ri-al. See Matter. [temporal bone. 

ma-te'ri-es mor'bi. Specific causes of dis- 

ma-ter'nal. Pertaining to a mother, [eases. 

mat'ter. Physical substance ; pus. 

ma-ture'. Ripe ; fully developed. 

max-il'la. Bone of either jaw. 

max'il-la-ry Pertaining to jaws. 

max'i-mum. The largest quantity. 

may'ol. A preservative compound. 

mea'sles. A contagious disease of children ; 

rubeola. [tory or urethral meatus. 

me-a'tus. A passage; an opening, as audi- 

me-chan'ic-al. Pertaining to mechanics. 

me'di-an, me'di-al. Middle or mesial. — m. 
line. Middle line of body. — m. nerve. A 
branch of brachial plexus. [num. 

me-di-as-ti'nal. Pertaining to mediasti- 

me-di-as-ti'num. Septum of thoracic cav- 

me'di-ate. Indirect. [ity. 

me'di-um. That in which anything lives; 
surrounding conditions. 

me-dul'la. Fatty substance or marrow in 
various cavities. — m. oblongata. En- 

larged portion of spinal cord in cranium. 

med'ul-la-ry. Pertaining to the medulla. 
— m. canal. Hollow interior of long bones. 
— m. membrane. The endostiunv [eyelids. 

Mei-bo'mi-an glands. Glands in margins of 

mel-a-no'sis. An abnormal deposit of black 
matter in various parts of the body. 

mel-a-not'ic. About melanosis. [urme. 

mel-a-nu'ri-a. Presence of dark pigment m 

mel-as'ma. Any discoloration of skin. — m. 
suprarenalis. Ecchymosis of Addison's 

mem'ber. Any limb of the body, [disease. 

mem-bra'na. A membrane. — m. tym'pa-na. 
The ear-drum. 

mem'brane. A thin enveloping or lining 
substance. — choroid m. Middle coat of 
eve. — arachnoid m. Middle covering of 
brain and cord. — false m. An unnatural 
membrane. — medullary m. That which 
lines cavities of long bones; endostium. 
— mucous m. That which lines the canals 
that have external openings. — sclerotic 
m. Outer coat of eye. — serous m. That 
which lines vessels and serous sacs. 



PR A CTICAL DICTION A I? Y 



G39 



mem'bra-nous. Like a membrane. — m. 
croup. Diphtheria. 

me-nin'ges. Covering of brain and cord. 

men-in-gi'tis. Inflammation of meninges. 

men'stru-um. A solvent. 

men'tal. Pertaining to mind. 

men'tum. The chin ; under-jaw. 

mer-cu'ric. Pertaining to or containing 
mercury as a bivalent. — m. chlorid. Bi- 
chlorid of mercury ; corrosive sublimate. 

mer'cu-ry. Hydrargyrum ; a white, heavy 
liquid metal. 

mes-en-ter'ic. Pertaining to mesenteries. 

mes-en-te-ri'tis. Inflammation of mesen- 
teries, [small intestine. 

mes'en-ter-y. Peritoneal attachment of 

mes'o-blast. The mesoderm, which see. 

mes-o-ce'cum. Process of peritoneum at- 
tached to cecum. 

mes-o-coTon. Mesentery of the colon. 

mes'o-derm. Middle germ-layer of the em- 
bryo, [tached to rectum. 

mes-o-rec'tum. Process of peritoneum at- 

met-ab'o-lism. Change in the intimate con- 
dition of cells, constructive or destructive. 
met-a-car'pal. Pertaining to metacarpus. 

rr.et-a-car'pus Bones of palm of hand. 

met-al'lic ir'ri-tants. Metals that produce 
irritation. — m. poisons. Metals that pro- 
duce poisonous effects. 

met-a-mor'pho-sis. A passing from one 

form or shape to another, 
met-a-tar'sal. Pertaining to metatarsus, 
met-a-tar'sus. Bones of arch of foot. 
me'ter. Unit of measure of metric system, 

39.37 inches, 
meth'yl al'co-hol. Carbonal or wood spirit ; 

colorless liquid distilled from wood. 
met'ric sys'tem. A system of weights and 

measures having the meter as its base, 
mi-as'ma. A noxious, morbific exhalation 

from putrescent matter ; malaria, 
mi-as-mat'ic. Pertaining to miasma, 
mi'crobe. A microscopic organism ; espe- 
cially a bacteria ; a micro-organism, 
mi-cro'bic. Pertaining to microbe, 
mi-cro-coc'cus Spherical micro-organism, 
mi'cron. One-millionth part of a meter. 
mi-cro-or'ganism. A minute living body, 

as a microbe or bacterium, 
mi'cro-scope. An instrument for examin- 
ing minute objects. [scope, 
mi-cro-scop'ic. Pertaining to the micro- 
mid-riff. The diaphragm, 
mi'gra-to-ry. Moving from one place to 



another. — m. cells Cells that move from 
place to place, 
mil'i-a-ry. Like millet seed. — m. aneurism. 
Very small aneurism in arteries. — m. dis- 
ease. Disease of sweat-glands. — m. 
glands. Sweat-glands, 
milk. Secretion of mammary gland. — m. 
sugar. Sweet principle of milk; lactose. 
— m. teeth. Temporary or first teeth, 
mil'li-gram. One-thousandth part of a gram. 
milTi-li-ter. One-thousandth part of a liter. 
mil'li-me-ter. One-thousandth part of a 
meter. [pound found in nature, 
min'er-al. Any inorganic homogenous com- 
mis-car'riage. The expulsion of fetus be- 
fore natural time of delivery, 
mis'cible. Capable of being mixed, 
mis'tu-ra. A liquid mixture ; a potion. 
mi'tral. Miter-like. — m. valve. Left auric- 

ulo-ventricular valve of heart, 
mo'bile. Movable. 

mo-bil'i-ty. Property of being easily moved, 
mo'dus op-er-an'di. Mode of operating, 
mo'lar. Pertaining to a mole or mass. — m. 
teeth. Back grinding teeth, [turn to dust, 
mold'er, mould'er. To decay gradually and 
mo-lec'u-lar. Pertaining to molecules. — m. 
death. Disintegration of a part. — m. vi- 
brations. The smaller vibrations, 
mol'e-cule. Smallest quantity of a sub- 
stance that may exist and preserve the 
characteristic qualities. [vis. 

mons Ven'er-is. Eminence on female pel- 
mor'bid. Pertaining to disease. — m. anat- 
omy. See Anatomy, 
mor-bif'ic. Causing disease, 
mor'bus. A disease, as cholera morbus. 
morgue. A dead-house. 

mor'i-bund. Dying; in a dying state, [urn. 
mor'phin. Principal narcotic alkaloid of opi- 
mor-phol'o-gy. Science of organic forms, 
mors. Death. 

mor'tal. Liable to death ; deadly, [mortal, 
mor-tal'i-ty. Death-rate ; state of being 
rr.or'tu-a-ry. Relating to the dead ; ^morgue. 
mo'tile. Capable of spontaneous motion. 
mo'tor. Applied to muscles and nerves 
moving apart. — m. fiber. The fiber of 
motor nerves. — m. nerves. Those that 
move apart. — m. oculi. Third cranial 
nerve which supplies most of the muscles 
mo'tory. Pertaining to motor, [of the eye. 
mouth. Cavity at entrance of alimentary 
canal ; an orifice, 
move'ments. Motion or action. 



640 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



mu'cin. An albuminoid constituent of mu- 
cus [rimal sac. 
mu'co-cele. A mucus tumor ; enlarged lae- 

mu'coid. Resembling mucus or mucous 
tissue. [cus and membrane. 

mu-co-mem'bra-nous. Composed of mu- 

mu-co'sa. A mucous membrane. 

mu'cous. Having nature of mucous. — m- 
membrane. See Membrane, [membrane. 

mu'cus. Yi?cid liquid secretion of mucous 

mum-mi-fi-ca'tion. Desiccation of a tissue 
so that it resembles a mummy in color and 

mum'mi-fy. To make a mummy of. [texture. 

rnum'my. The desiccated body ; anciently 
embalmed body. — m.-cloth. The linen or 
cloth in which the mummy is enwrapped. 

mumps. An acute infectious disease of the 

mu'ral. Pertaining to wall, [parotid gland. 

mu-ri-at'ic acid. A mineral acid. 

mur'mur, re-spir'a-to-ry. A low sound 
heard in auscultation of lungs. 

mus'cle. Organic contractile tissue, the 
means of animal motion. — m.-corpuscles. 
Those in plasma. — m.-plasma. Liquid ex- 
pressed from fresh muscle. — striated m. 
Striped ; under control of the will. 

mus'cu-lar. Pertaining to muscle. — m. coat. 
Middle coat of walls of arteries and veins. 
— m fibers. Fibers comprising muscle. — 
m. sense. Sensation that accompanies 
muscular action. [cles and skin. 

mus-cu-lo-cu-ta'ne-ous. Pertaining to mus- 

mus-cu-lo-phren'ic. Pertaining to dia- 
phragm, [muscle and membrane. 

mus-cu-lo-mem'bra-nous. Composed of 

mus'cu-lus. A muscle. 

my-co'sis. Presence of parasitic fungi in 
body, as well as disease caused by them. 

my'el-in. Medullary sheath of a nerve. 

my-el-i'tis. Inflammation of spinal cord. 

my'el-oid. Marrow-like ; medullary. 

my-i'tis. Inflammation of a muscle. 

my-o-car'di-um. Muscle mass of heart. 

my-o-de'mi-a. Fatty degeneration of mus- 
cle-tissue, [cle-fibers ; sarcolemma. 

my-o-lem'ma. Thin membrane around mus- 

my'oid. Resembling muscular tissue. 

my'on. A hypothetical muscular unit ; a 

my-on'o-sus. A disease of muscles, [muscle. 

my-op'a-thy. Any disease of a muscle. 

rr.y-o-si'tis. Inflammation of muscle tissue. 

my'o-spasm. Spasmodic contraction of 
muscles. 

N 
nail. Horny lamina at end of finger or toe. 



nape. Back part of neck. 

naph'tha. Crude petroleum. 

nar-cct'ic. A hypnotic allaying pain. 

na'res. Opening into nose. 

na'sal. Pertaining to nose. — n. duct. Tear- 
duct. — n. fossae. Nasal passages. — n. tube. 
A tube for injecting the respiratory tract. 

na'tal. Relating to the nates. [body. 

na'tes. The buttocks ; gluteal region oi 

na'tri-um. Sodium (from which symbol 

na'tron. Native sodium carbonate. [Na.) 

nau'se-a. Sickness at stomach. 

nau'se-ous. Producing nausea ; disgusting. 

na'vel. Depression or scar on abdomen 
where umbilical cord was attached ; um- 
bilicus. 

na-vic'u-lar. Bone on upper row of carpus. 

neck. Part of body between head and trunk. 

nec-ro-bi-o'sis. Molecular death of a part. 

nec'ro-sco-py. Scientific examination of a 
dead body ; autopsy, [tification ; gangrene. 

nec-ro'sis. Death of part of the body ; mor- 

nec-rot'ic. Pertaining to necrosis. 

nee'dle. Pointed instrument for punctur- 
ing. — cardiac-n. Needle for pumping out 
blood from heart. — embalming-n. Needle 
for aspirating and injecting cavities. — ■ 
n. -forceps. Forceps for pulling the needle 
in sewing. — hollow-n. See Embalming- 
Needle. — n. process. An operation for 
injecting fluid direct into cranial cavity. 

neph'ri-a. Bright's disease. 

neph-ri'tis. Inflammation of kidneys. 

neph'roid. Kidney-like. 

nerve. A bundle of nerve-fibers outside the 
nervous system. — n.-cell. An irregular 
nucleated cell in nerve-matter. — n.-cen- 
ter. A group of nerve-cells. — n. -current. 
Current that passes through nerves that 
make impressions on brain. — n. -fiber. 
One of essential thread-like units com- 
posing a nerve. — n. -fibril. An extremely 
fine nerve-fiber. — n. -impulse. Impulse 

propagated along a stimulated nerve. — 
motor-n. One containing chiefly motor- 
fibers. — n. plexus. A group of nerves. — 
sympathetic n. One of system distributed 
to blood-vessels and viscera. — vasamotor 
n. A nerve controlling caliber of blood- 
vessels. 

nerv'ous. Pertaining to or full of nerves. 
— n. system. Nerves of the body taken to- 

neu'ral. Pertaining to nerves. [gether. 

neu-ri'tis. Inflammation of a nerve. 

neu-ral'gi-a. Pain in nerve. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



641 



neu tral. Possessing neither acid nor basic 
properties. [tive. 

neu'tral-ize. To render inactive or nega- 

ne'vus. A birth-mark. 

ni'dus. A nest ; a cluster. 

nid'u-lus. Deep origin of a nerve. 

nip'ple. Conic elevation in center of mam- 
mary gland. 

hi'ter. Saltpeter ; nitrate of potash. 

ni'tric acid. -V mineral acid. 

ni'trate. A salt of nitric acid. 

ni'trite. A salt of nitrous acid. 

ni'tro-gen. A colorless, non-metallic, gas- 
eous element ; a main constituent of air. 

ni-trog'e-nous. Containing nitrogen. 

node. A hard swelling on a tendon or bone. 

nod'ule. -V small knob or excrescence. 

non-rr.ed'vl-la-ted. Not medullated ; unpro- 
vided with medullary sheath. 

non-stri'a-ted. Not striped, [ease-producing. 

non-path-c-cen'ic. Not pathogenic ; not dis- 

non-vis'cu-lar. Xct vascular. — n. tissue. 
Tissue -without blood-vessels. 

nor'mal. According to rule or type. 

nose. The organ of smell. 

nos-ol'o-gy. The science of disease. 

nos'tril. A naris. 

nos-tal'gi-a. Home-sickness. 

notch. An indention ; a hollow. — in-ter- 
ver'te-bral n. Any one of depressions of 
vertebral pedicles. 

nox'ious. Harmful ; poisonous. 

noz'zle. Projecting spout for discharging. 

ntt-cle-ate. Having nuclei. 

nu'cle-a-ted cells. Cel'.s with nuclei. 

nu'cle-in. Nitrogenous constituent of cell- 
nuclei, [nucleus. 

nu-cle'o-lus. A small granule in interior ol 

nu'cle-us (pl.-cle-i). Essential part of a typ 
ical cell and controlling center of its acti 

nu-tri'tiotts. Yielding nourishment, [vity 

nu'tri-ent. A nutritious substance. — n. ves 
se's. Those that carry nutrition. 

nu'tri-ment. Anything that nourishes. 

nu-tri'tion. Process of 'assimilating food. 



ob-cor'date. Heart-shaped. 
ob-duc'tion. A post-mortem examination. 
o-bese'. Extremely fat ; corpulent. 
o-bes'i-ty. Fatness ; corpulency, 
o-'. it'u-ary. Pertaining to death. 
ob-lique'. Slanting, as a muscle. 
ob-!it-er-a'tion. Extinction; blotting out. 
ob-lon-ga'ta. The medulla oblongata. 



neu'tral. Possessing neither acid nor basic 
ing pregnancy and child-birth. 

ob-struct'. To close up or interfere. [ing. 

ob-struc'tion. Clocking of a canal or open- 

ob'tt>ra-tor. That which obstructs a cavity. 

oc-cip'i-tal. Pertaining to the occiput. 

oe'ei-pttt. Power back part of the head. 

oc-clude'. To block up or close. 

oc-clu'sion. Blocking up of an opening or 
canal, as of a vessel. 

oc-cult'. Hidden ; secret. 

oc'u-lar. Pertaining to the eyes. [ments. 

oc-u-lo-mo'tion. Pertaining to eye-move- 

oc'u-lus. The eye. 

o-don'tcid. Resembling a tooth. — o. proc- 
ess. Tooth-like process of axis. 

o'dor. A scent, smell, or perfume. 

o'dor-ant. Odorous. 

o-dor-if erous. Yielding an odor. 

o'dcr-less. Without odor. 

oil. A greasy liquid not miscible with water, 
composed of glyceryl and fatty acid. — o. 
of cedar. A volatile oil from the leaves of 
Juniperus Virginiana used as an antisep- 
tic. — o. of lavender. Volatile oil from 
lavender flowers. — o. of turpentine. Spir- 
its of turpentine ; a volatile oil from the 
concrete oleorism of pinus palustris and 
other species. — o. of vitriol. Sulphuric 
acid. [boiled oil. 

oiled silk. Silk made water-proof with 

oils, es-sen'tial. Volatile oils distilled from 
different odoriferous vegetable substances. 

o-le-ag'i-nous. Having nature of oil. [base. 

o'le-ate. A compound of oleic acid and a 

o-le-cra'non. Large process forming head 
of ulna. [illuminating gas. 

o-le'fi-ant gas. Ethylene ; a constituent of 

o'le-in. A colorless, oily compound, the 
chief constituent of fatty oils. 

o'le-um. See Oil. 

cl-fac'tion. The sense of smell. 

ol-fac'to-ry. Pertaining to olfaction. — o. 
bulb. Bulbous section of olfactory nerve. 
— o. center. Brain-center governing sense 
of smell. — o. nerve. Nerve of smell. 

o-li'va. Olivary body of brain. 

ol'iv-a-ry body. The oliva, situated behind 
anterior pyramid of the oblongata. 

o-men'tal. Pertaining to the omentum. 

o-men-ti'tis. Inflammation of omentum. 

o-men'tum. A fold of peritoneum connect- 
ing abdominal viscera with stomach. — 
great o. Fold falling from great curvature 
of stomach over intestines and returning 



642 



CHAMPION TEXT-HOOK OX EMBALM! XG 



to be attached to transverse colon. — les- 
ser o. Double fold passing from lesser 
curvature of stomach to transverse fis- 
sure of liver. 

ooze. To transude. 

o-paque'. Not transparent ; impervious to 
light. [tion. 

op'er-a-tor. One that performs an opera- 

oph-tharmi-a. Inflammation of conjunc- 

cph-thal'mic. Pertaining to the eye. [tiva. 

o'pi-ate. Pertaining to opium ; an opium 
preparation. 

o'pi-um. Inspissated juice of poppy. 

op-o-bal'sam. Balsam of Mecca. 

op'ti;. Pertaining to vision or its organs. 

op'ti-cal. Pertaining to optics. 

or-bic'u-lar. Circular; spheric. 

or'bit. Pony cavity for eyeball, [function. 

cr'gan. Any part of body having a special 

cr-gan'ic. Pertaining to or having organs. 

organ-ism. A living organized being. 

o-ri-en-ta'tion. The location of one's posi- 
tion in a given environment. 

or'i-gin. The beginning or source. — o. of a 
muscle. The beginning or source ; the fixed 
attachment of a muscle. [combined. 

o-ro-phar'ynx. The mouth and pharynx 

os (pi. o'ra.). A mouth. 

os (pi. os'sa). A bone. — o. calcis. The heel- 
bone, calcaneum. — o. innominatum. The 
hip-bone. — o. hyoides. The ischium. — o. 
pubis. The pubis. [branes. 

os'mose. Diffusion of fluids through mem- 

os-mot'ic. Pertaining to osmosis. 

os'sa. Plural of os. 

os'se-ous Pony : resembling bone. 

os'si-cles The small bones of the ear. 

os-sif'ic. Generating bone. 

os-si-fi-ca'tion. The formation of bone. 

os'si-fy. To change into bone. 

os-tal'gi-a. Pain in bone. 

os'te-in. The gelatinous principle of bone. 

cs-te-i'tis. Inflammation of the bone. 

os-te-og'e-ny. Development and formation 

os'te-on. Bone. [of bone. 

os-te-o-ne-cro'sis. Necrosis of bone. 

os-te-ot'o-my. Incision of bone. 

os'ti-um. Mouth of a tubular passage. 

o'to-liths. Ear-stones. 

o-to~'te-on. An ear-stone; otolith. 

ounce. Twelfth part of troy and sixteenth 
of avoirdupois pounds. 

o-va'ri-an. Pertaining to ovaries. — o. drop- 
sy. Dropsy of ovary. — o. tumor. A tumor 
of ovary. [producing the ova. 

o'va-ry. Organ of generation in female 



ov'en. An apparatus for sterilization, 
o'vi-ducts. Small tube on each side of 
o'void. Kgg-shaped. [utero. 

o'vule. The unimpregnated ovum, 
o'vum (pi. o'va). Egg. [ous compound, 
ox-al'ic acid. A white, crystalline, poison- 
ox'id. Any binary combination of oxygen, 
ox-i-da'tion. Conversion into an oxygen, 
ox'y-gen. One of the gaseous elements. 
ox-y-gen-a'tion. Saturation with oxygen, 
o'zone. An allatropic form of oxygen used 
as an antiseptic and oxidizing agent. 



pab'u-lum. Pood ; anything nutritious. 

pach-e'mi-a. Thickening of the blood. 

pal'ate. Roof of the mouth and floor of 
nose. — p. bone. Bone helping form outer 
wall of nose, roof of mouth, and floor of 
orbits, -hard p. Bony palate adjacent to 
gums. — soft p. Soft posterior part of 

pale. Wanting in color; pallid. [palate. 

pal'li-ate. To mitigate ; to relieve. 

pal'lid. Paleness; lacking color. 

palm. Inner side of hand. 

pal'mar. Pertaining to palm. — p. arch. Ar- 
terial arch in palm. [stance of fat. 

pal'mit-in. The solid, crystallizable sub- 

pal'pa-ble. That which may be perceived 
by palpitation. 

pal'pate. To explore with the hand. 

pal-pa'tion. Exploration with the hand. 

pal-pi-ta'tion. Violent pulsation, as of 
heart - [sation. 

pal'sy. Paralysis ; weakening or loss of sen- 

pan'cre-as. A racemose gland in abdomen ; 
sweetbread. 

pan-cre-at'ic. Pertaining to the pancrea: . 
— p. juice. Fluid secreted by pancreas. — p. 
duct. The canal that conveys the pancre- 
atic juice to the intestines, [pie or pustule. 

pa-pil'la. A small conic eminence ; a pir.v 

pap'il-la-ry. Pertaining to tongue; having 
papillas. — p. layer. External layer of true 

pap'u-la. Small elevation ot the skin. [skin. 

par'af-fin. A white waxv crystalline sub- 
stance, [tary motion. 

par-al'y-sis. Loss of sensation or volun- 

par-a-ple'gi-a. Paralysis of lower half of 
body. [other organism. 

par'a-site. An organism that inhabits art- 

par-a-sit'ic. Having nature of a parasite. 

par-en'chy-ma. Soft cellular tissue; con- 
nective tissue. [but not sensation. 

par'e-sis. Partial paralysis affecting motion 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



643 



par-es-the'si-a. Same as Paresis. 

pa-ri'e-tal. Pertaining to a wall. [it3% 

pa-ri'e-tes (pi. of pa'ri-es). Walls of a cav- 

par-ot'id. Near the ear. — p. gland. Sali- 
vary gland in front of ear. [mumps. 

par-o-ti'tis. Inflammation of parotid gland ; 

par'ox-ysm. Period of increase or crisis of 
a disease. 

par-tu-ri'tion. Act of giving birth to young. 

pas'sage. A channel ; act of passing from 
one place to another. 

pas'sive. Not active; submissive. 

pas'til, pas-tile'. Tablet or lozenge ; having 
a round, oblong, square, or triangular form. 

patch. An irregular spot or area. 

pa-tel'la. The knee-cap. 

path'o-gene. A bacterium or microscopic 
organism found in infectious disease, 
which is supposed to cause it. 

path-o-gen'ic. Causing disease. — p. bac- 
teria. One that causes disease. 

path-o-log'i-cal. Pertaining to pathology. 

pa-thol'o-gy. The science of disease. 

pa'tient. Sick person ; one under treatment. 

pec-ti-ne'al. Pertaining to pubic bones. 

pec'to-ral. Pertaining to the breast. 

ped'al. Pertaining to the feet. 

ped'i-cle. Stalk or attachment of a tumor. 

psd-un'cle. The supporting part. 

pel'vic. Pertaining to pelvis. — p. cavity. 
Basin-like cavity at lower end of trunk. 

pel'vis. Bony basin of the trunk. 

pen'du-lous. Hanging or dropping. 

pen'e-trate. To enter beyond the surface. 

pen'ni-form. Shaped like a feather. 

pep'sin. Digestive principle of gastric juice. 

pep'tic. Pertaining to or promotive of di- 
gestion. — p. gland. Gland that secretes 
gastric juice. 

pep'tone. An albuminoid produced by ac- 
tion of pepsin. 

per'co-late. (1) To filter; strain. (2) That 
which has percolated. 

per-co-la'tion. The process of filtration. 

per'co-la-tor. A filterer. 

per'forans. Penetrating; perforating; deep 
Ilex or muscles of the fingers. 

per'fo-rate. To pierce with holes. 

per'fo-ra-ting. Making an opening or pene- 
tration.- -p. arteries. Those passing 
through interosseous spaces or muscles. 

per-fo-ra'tion. An opening or penetration. 

per-i-ar-te-ri'tis. Inflammation of outer 
.heath of arteries. [nucleus. 

per-i-blast. Protoplasm around the cell 



per-i-car'di-al (or ac). Pertaining to peri- 
cardium. — p. sac. Sac enclosing heart. 

per-i-car-di'tis. Inflammation of pericar- 
dium, [ing heart. 

per-i-car'di-um. Serous membrane enclos- 

per-i-chon'dri-um. Membrane around carti- 

per-i-cra'ni-um. Periosteum of skull, [lage. 

per-i-mys'i-um. Membranous sheath of 
muscles. [anus to genitals. 

per-i-ne'um. Space between thighs from 

pe'ri-od. An interval of time. [urn. 

per-i-os-ti'tis. Inflammation of perioste- 

per-i-os'te-um. Fibrovascular membrane 
that covers and nourishes bone. 

per-i-o'tic. Surrounding the inner ear. 

per-iph'er-al. Pertaining to periphery. — p. 
circulation. Circulation in outer surface 
of body. [line. 

per-iph'er-y. Circumference or boundary 

per-i-phle-bi'tis. Inflammation of outer 
coat of a vein. 

per'i-plast. Matrix of a part or organ. 

per-i-stal'sis. Worm-like motion of bowels. 

per-i-stal'tic. Pertaining to peristalsis. — p. 
movement. Same as peristalsis. 

per-is-tro'ma. Villous coat of intestines. 

per-i-sys'to-le. Internal between systole 
and diastole. 

per-i-to-ne'al. Pertaining to peritoneum. 
— p. cavity. Cavity within peritoneum. 
— p. sac. Serous sac in abdominal cavity. 

per-i-to-ne'um. Serous membrane lining 
the abdomen. [neum. 

per-i-to-ni'tis. Inflammation of perito- 

per-i-vas'cu-lar. Around the vessels. 

per-o-ne'al. Pertaining to fibula. 

per-o-ne'um. The fibula. [oxygen. 

per-ox'id. An oxid with highest amount of 

per-spi-ra'tion. (1) Secretion and excre- 
tion of liquid from skin ; sweating. (2) 
The liquid fluid so secreted ; sweat. 

pe-tech'i-se. Small spots of ecchymosis be- 
neath the epidermis. 

pet'rous. Resembling bone. — p. bone. 
Bower portion of temporal bone. 

pha-lan'ges (pi. of pha'lanx). Bones of fin- 
gers and toes. [the mouth. 

phar'ynx. Musculomembranous sac behind 

phe'nol. Carbonic acid. 

phe-nom'en-on. (1) Uncommon occurrence. 
(2) A symptom. [a vein. 

phleb-i'tis. Inflammation of inner coat of 

phlegm. (1) Watery humor. (2) .Mucus 
from bronchi. 

phos'phate. A salt of phosphoric acid. 



044 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 



phos'pho-rus. A non-metal, one of the ele- 
ments in bone and nerve-tissue, 
phthi'sis. Pulmonary tuberculosis, [purge, 
phys'ic. Science of medicine; medicine; a 
phys'ical. Pertaining to physics or the 
body. [ology. 

phys-i-o-log'i-cal. Pertaining to physi- 

phys-i-ol'o-gy. The science of the functions 

of the body, 
pi'a ma'ter. Innermost membrane invest- 
ing the brain and spinal cord. 
pic'ro-mel. A bitter substance in the bile, 
pig'ment. An organic coloring-matter. 
pig'men-ta-ry. Pertaining to pigment, 
pi'la-ry. Pertaining to the hair. 
pil'lar of the fau'ees. One of the mucous 
folds on each side of the throat. [randi. 
pi-lo-car'pin. Active principal in jabo- 
pi'lose (or pi'lous). Hairy: covered with 
pi'lus. A hair. I hairs. 

pim'ple. A small pustule or blotch. 
pin'e-al. Shaped like a pine-cone. — p. 
body or gland. The small, reddish, 
lar body in back part of the third ven- 
pi'ni-form. Conical. [tricle. 

pint. Eighth part of a gallon; weight, 7. 

grains. [carpus. 

pi'si-form bone. A small circular bone of 
pit of the stom'ach. The part of the abdo- 
men just below the sternum. 
pit'u-i-ta-ry. Secreting mucus ; pertaining 
to phlegm. — p. body or gland. A small 
reddish body in sella turcica, 
pla-cen'ta. The flat-round, spongy body 
forming organ of intuition for fetus; after- 
pla-cen'tal. Pertaining to placenta, [birth. 
plague. A contagious malignant epidemic 
plan'ta. The sole of the foot. [disease, 

plan'tar. Pertaining to sole of foot. — p. 

arch. Arterial arch in sole of foot. 
plas'ma. Fluid part of blood and lymph. 
pledg'et. A small wad of cotton or lymph, 
pleth'o-ra. Abnormal fullness of blood- 
-vessels. [the lungs, 

pleu'ra. A serous membrane enveloping 
pleu'ral. Pertaining to pleura. — p. sacs. 
Pleura;. — p. cavities. Cavities of pleurae, 
pleu'ri-sy, pleu-ri'tis. Inflammation of the 
pleu-rit'ic. Pertaining to pleurisy, [pleura. 
plex'us. A network of nerves and veins, 
pneu-mat'ic. Pertaining to gaseous fluids. 
pneu-mo-gas'tric. Pertaining to lungs and 

stomach. 
pneu-mo'ni-a. Inflammation of lungs. 
pneu-mo-per-i-car-di'tis. Inflammation of 
pericardium attended with gas. 



pneu-mo-per-i-car'di-um. An effusion of 

gas into pericardial sac. 
pneu-mo-tho'rax. Gas or air in pleural sac. 
pock. A small pustule of smallpox. — p. 
marked. Marked with pits or scars of 
smallpox, 
poi'son. A venomous or toxic agent, 
pol'lex (pl.-li-cesl The thumb or great toe. 
pol-lu'tion. Defilement ; uncleanness. 
pol-y-he'mi-a. Abnormal increase of blood, 
po'mum Ad-a'mi. A prominence in front of 
neck, due to thyroid cartilage; Adam's 
apple, 
pons. A process or bridge of tissue connect- 
ing two parts.— p. va-ro'li-i. Connecting 
brain with spinal cord. 
pop-li-te'al. Pertaining to the ham. — p. 
space. Space behind knee-joint. [joint, 
pop-li-te'us. Ham or hinder-part of knee- 
pore. A small opening in skin, 
por'ta. A gate; the hilus of an organ, 
por'tal. Pertaining to portal vein. — p. cir- 
culation. See page 188 body of hook.— p. 
vein. Vein carrying blood from liver. 
pos-te'ri-or. behind. — p. nares. Opening 

of nose into larynx. 
post-mor'tem. After death. — p. contrac- 
tion. Contraction of arteries after death, 
—p. discoloration. The color resulting 
from settling of blood into de,. 
parts. — p . examination. Examination of 
after death; autopsy.— p. rigidity. 
Rigor mortis.— p. staining. Staining due 
to transuded hemoglobin near surface or ■ 
in skin. 
pot'ash. A white solid deliquescent com- 
pound having a strong alkaline reaction 
and actively caustic. [ment. 

po-tas'si-um. A bluish-white metallic ele- 
po-to-ma'ni-a. Same as Dipsomania. 
pouch. A sac-like part. 

pound. A variable unit of weight or mass. 
Pou'part's ligament. A thickened band of 
fascia that extends from upper anterior 
j art of hip-bone over the vessel of thigh 
to pubis. 
pre-cip'i-tant. Any agent, as a reagent, 
that when added to a solution causes a 
precipitation of one or more constituents. 
pre-cip'i-tate. A substance separated by 

precipitation. 
pre-cor'di-a. Epigastric region, including 
the thoracic organs in front of the heart, 
pre-cor'di-al Pertaining to the precordia. 
pre-dis-po-si'tion. A natural tendency. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



645 



preg'nan-cy. Condition of being with child. 

pre-hen'sile. Fitted for grasping. 

pre-hen'sion. The act of grasping. 

pre-ma-ture'. Occuring before the proper 
time. — p. burial. Burial before life is ex- 
tinct, [being preserved. 

pres-er-va'tion. Act of preserving; state of 

pre-serv'a-tive. Tending to keep from de- 
cay. — p. solution. A solution for preser- 

pre-vent'ive. Warding off. [vation. 

pri'ma-ry. First in origin. — p. arteries. 
The larger or first in their course. 

prin'ceps. A main artery. [anything. 

prin'ci-ple. Essence or primary quality of 

proc'ess. A prolongation or prominence of 
a part. — coracoid p. A beak-shaped proc- 
ess of the scapula. 

pro-cre-a'tion. Reproduction : generation. 

pro-fun'da. A deep-seated artery. 

prog-no'sis. Prediction of course and end 
of disease. [part. 

pro-kpse', pro-lap'sus. A falling down of a 

pro-lif-er-a'tion. Cell-generation; reproduc- 

prop-a-ga'tion. Act of multiplying, [tion. 

proper soil. A soil that will produce. 

pro-phy-lac'tic. Pertaining to prophylaxis. 

pro-phy-Iax'is. Prevention of disease. 

pros'tate gland. A gland at neck of bladder 
in the male. [an organ. 

pro'te-id. An albuminoid constituent of 

pro'te-in. A compound obtained from pro- 
teids. [proteids. 

pro-te-o-lyt'ic. Causing the splitting up of 

pro'to-plasm, pro-to-plas'ma. The viscid, 
contractile, semi-liquid substance, form- 
ing principal portion of animal and veg- 
etable cells ; germinal matter, [protoplasm. 

pro-to-plas'mic. Of or pertaining to or like 

pro'to-plast. Embryonic cell ; protoplasm. 

pro-trude'. To push out or extend forth. 

pro-tu'ber-ance. A projecting part; prom- 
inence. 

prox'i-mate (or prox'i-mal). Nearest. — p. 
principle. An ultimate element of a com- 
pound substance. [juice. 

prune-juice spu'tum. The color of prune 

prus'sic acid. Hydrocyanic acid. 

pso'as. Loins ; a muscle of the loins. 

pter'y-goid. Resembling a wing. — p. proc- 
ess. Wing-like process on each side of 
sphenoid bone. 

pter-y-go-pal'a-tine. Pertaining to ptery- 
goid process and palate bone. 

pto'ma-in. A putrefactive animal alkaloid. 

pty'a-lin. An amylolitig ferment of saliva. 



pty'a-lism. Excessive secretion of saliva. 

pu'ber-ty. Age of capability of reproduc- 
tion, [bone. 

pu'bes. Anterior portion of innominate 

pu'bic. Pertaining to pubes. — p. arch. 
Arch formed by junction of pubic bones. 

pu'bis. A pubic bone. 

pu'dic. Pertaining to the genitals. 

pu-er'per-al. Pertaining to child-bearing. 
— p. fever. Child-bed fever. 

pul'mo-na-ry. Pertaining to the lungs. — 
p. circulation. Purifying circulation of 
blood. — p. tuberculosis. Consumption of 

pul-mon'ic. Pertaining to lungs. [lungs. 

pul-mo-ni'tis. Inflammation of lungs, [tion. 

pul-sa'tion. A beating or throbbing sensa- 

pulse. Expansive impulse of arteries. — p. 
beat. Same as Pulse. — p. rate. Number 
of beats per minute. [strument. 

punc'ture. A wound made by a pointed in- 

pun'gent. Acrid ; penetrating. 

pu'pil. Round aperture in the iris. 

purge. To purify or cleanse by carrying 
off through external opening of body. 

purg'ing. Act of purifying or cleansing. 

pu'ri-form. Having the nature of pus. 

pur'pu-ra. Hemorrhages in true skin. 

pu'ru-lent. Having the character of pus. 

pus. Fluid product of suppuration. 

pus'tu-lant. Causing pustules ; an irritant 
that causes pustules. 

pus'tule. A small purulent papule. 

pu-tre-fac'tion. Act or process of putrefy- 
ing ; decomposition of animal or vegetable 
matter. 

pu-tre-fac'tive. Of or pertaining to putre- 
faction ; liable to decay ; production of 
putrefaction. — p. bacteria. The micro- 
organisms which cause putrefaction. 

pu'tre-fy. To cause to decompose or decay 
with fetid odor, render putrid ; to become 
fetid from decay ; rot. [to decay. 

pu-tres'cent. Becoming putrid ; beginning 

pu-tres'ci-ble. Liable to decay. 

pu'trid. Showing putrefaction ; rotten ; be- 
ing in a state of putrefaction. 

pu-trid'i-ty. That which has become pu- 
trid ; corruption. 

py-e'mi-a. Poisonous infection of the blood, 
due to absorption of vitiated pus or putrid 
animal secretions into the circulation; 
blood-poisoning. 

py-lor'ic. Pertaining to pylorus.- — p. ori- 
fice. The pylorus. — p. valve. Valve clos- 
1 ing pyloric opening. 



04 fi 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EM BALM ING 



py-lo'rus. Opening between stomach and 
small intestine; adjoining portion of 
stomach. [tained in pus. 

py-o-cy'a-min. Blue or violet pigment con- 

py'oid. Resembling pus. 

py-o'sis. Suppuration. [gan. 

pyr'a-mid. Any conical eminence of an or- 

py-ret'ic. Affected with or relating to fever. 

py-rex'i-a. Abnormal condition of high 
bodily temperature ; fever or feverishness ; 
a paroxysm of fever. 

pyr'i-form. Pear-shaped. 



py-ro si 
py-u'ri- 



Chronic catarrh of the stomach. 
Passing of urine containing pus. 



quack. One who practices quackery, 
quack'er-y. Medical charlatanism, 
quad'rate. Square. — q. lobule. A small 

lobe of liver. 
quad-ra'tus. Square or four-sided, 
quad'ri-ceps muscle. A large muscle of the 
quart. Fourth part of a gallon. [thigh. 



rab'id. Affected with rabies or hydrophobia. 

rac'e-moce. Resembling a bunch of grapes. 
— r. glands. Glands resembling bunches 
of grapes in structure. 

ra'di-al. Pertaining to the radius. 

ra'di-a-ting. Diverting from the center. 

ra-di-a'tion. Condition of diverging from a 

rad'i-cal. Belonging to the root. [center. 

rad'i-cle. Primary root or stem ; initial 
fibril of a nerve ; beginning of a vein. 

ra'di-us. Small bone of arm. 

ra'dix. Root or root-like part. 

rag sort'ers' disease. Anthrax. [a part. 

ram-i-fi-ca'tion. Branching of an organ or 

ram'i-fy. Branch-shaped ; to divide and 
subdivide into branches or subdivisions. 

ra'mose. Having many branches ; branch- 

ra'mus. A branch of an organ. [ing. 

ran'cid. Fetid or sour, as fat. 

rash. An eruption of the skin. [acid. 

rats'bane. Common name for arsenious 

re-ac'tion. Responsive action ; the action 
of a reagent. 

re-a'gent. Anything producing a reaction. 

re-cep-tac'u-lum. A receiving vesicle or 
cavity. — r. chyli. Inferior expanded por- 
tion of chyle duct. [R. Take. 

rec'i-pe. The caption of a prescription. 

rec'tal. Pertaining to the rectum. 

rec'tum. L,ower part of the large intestine. 



rec'tus. In a straight line; name of certain 
muscles. — r. muscles. A muscle that ele- 
vates or turns a part. 

re-cum'bent. Reclining. [to health. 

re-cu-per-a'tion. Convalescence; returning 

re-cur'rence. A return. 

re-cur-rent. Returning at intervals. 

re-duce'. To decompose. [tion. 

re-duc'tion. Restoration to a normal situa- 

re-du'pli-cate. To repeat again and again ; 

re-fine'. To make fine or pure, [to multiply. 

re'flex. Turned or thrown back ; pertaining 
to or produced by reflex action. — r. action. 
An involuntary action from nerve-stimu- 

re'flux. Flowing back ; returning. [lus. 

reins. The kidney or region of kidney. 

re'gion. A certain part or division of body. 

re'gions of the ab-do'men. See Text. 

re'gion-al. Pertaining to a region. — r. anat- 
omy. Study of correlated regions of body. 

re-gur'gi-tate. To throw or pour back ; 
cause to surge back. [slacken. 

re-lax'. To make loose ; to become loose ; 

re-lax-a'tion. Morbid looseness of an organ 
or part. [disease. 

rem'e-dy. An agent used in treatment of 

re'nal. Pertaining to the kidneys. 

ren'i-form. Shaped like a kidney. 

ren'in. A substance found in the kidney. 

ren'net. An infusion of the inner coat of a 
calf's stomach. 

ren'nin. A gastric ferment curdling milk. 

ren'o-vate. To make as good as new ; to 
make thoroughly clean ; purify. 

re-ple'tion. Condition of being full. • 

re-pro-duce'. To bring forth offspring. 

res'er-voir. A receptacle for liquids. — r. of 
the thymus. A receptacle in thymus gland. 

res-pi-ra'tion. Inspiration and expiration 
of air by the lungs. 

re-spir'a-tory. Pertaining to respiration. 
— r. organs. The lungs and certain mus- 
cles. — r. tract. The passage from mouth 
and nose to air-cells. 

res'ti-form. Rope-like ; twisted. 

re-stor'a-tive. A remedy restoring health 
and strength. [phyxiated person. 

re-sus-ci-ta'tion. Bringing to life of an as- 

retch. To strain at vomiting. [growth. 

re-tar-da'tion. Delay in development or 

re'te. A network or decussation. — r. mu- 
cosum. A thin layer on under side of epi- 
dermis containing coloring-matter. 

re-tic'u-lar. In the form of network; full 
of interstices. — r. tissue. Adenoid tissue. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



647 



re-tic'u-late. Network-like. 

re'ti-form. Net-shaped. [optic nerve. 

ret'i-na. Internal coat of eye ; expansion of 

ret-i-nac'u-lum. Band holding back a part. 

ret'i-nal. Pertaining to retina. [ward. 

re-tract'ile. Capable of being drawn back- 

re-trac'tion. Shortening ; drawing back- 
ward. 

re'tro-. A prefix meaning backward or be- 
hind, [ward. 

re-tro-flec'tion. A bending or flexing back- 

ret'ro-grade. Receding or going backward. 

rham'nose. A carbohydrate from various 
glucosids. 

rhi'nal. Pertaining to or belonging to nose. 

rib. One of the bones enclosing the chest. 
— false r. One of the five lower ribs not 
attached directly to sternum. — floating r. 
One of last two ribs. — true r. One of the 
seven upper ribs attached to sternum. 

rice-wat'er e-vac-u-a'tions. Stool having 
the appearance of rice-water. 

rig'id. Stiff ; immobile. 

ri-gid'i-ty. Stiffness ; immobility. 

rig'or. Coldness ; stiffness ; rigidity. — r. 
mortis. The rigidity after death. 

ring. A circular opening. 

rod-bac-ter'ri-a. Bacteria shaped like rods. 

rods. Rod-like bodies of the retina. 

Roent'gen rays. A recently discovered form 
of radiant energy that is sent out when 
the cathode rays of a Crooke's tube strike 
upon the opposite walls of the tube or 
upon any object in the tube ; discovered 
by Prof. Roentgen, of Wurzburg. 

rol'ler band'age. A long muslin or flannel 
strip for bandaging. 

root. Base of an organ or its place of ori- 

ros'trum. A projection or ridge. [gin. 

rot. Decay ; decomposition. 

rc'ta-ry. Turning. 

rc-ta'tion. Turning on the axis. 

ro-ta'tor. A muscle turning a part. 

round lig-a-ment. See Ligament. 

ru-be'o-la. Measles. 

ru-di-men'ta-ry. Undeveloped ; not formed. 

rump. End of backbone ; the buttocks. 



sab'u-lous. Gritty, like sand, said especially 
of particles found in pineal body and ad- 
jacent regions of the brain ; sandy, said of 
an abnormal sediment in urine. 

sa-bur'ra. Foulness of the stomach. 

sa-b'r'ral. Pertaining to saburra. 



sac. A membranous pouch. [pouch. 

sac'cate. Sac-shaped ; having a sac, bag, or 

sac'cha-roid. Resembling sugar. 

sac'cha-rose. Cane sugar. 

sac'cu-la-ted. Formed into a series of sac- 
like expansions ; dilated and restricted al- 
ternately ; encysted. [sacrum.. 

sa'cral. Pertaining to or situated near the 

sa'cra me'di-a. Middle sacral artery. 

sa'crum. Targe triangular bone above the 
coccyx. [saw-like seam. 

sag'it-tal. Arrow-shaped. — s. suture. A 

sal. Salt. 

sal'ic-yl-ate. A salt of salicylic acid. 

sa'line. Salty ; containing salt. 

sa li'va. Secretion of salivary glands. 

sal'i-va-ry. Pertaining to saliva. — s. glands. 
Glands that secrete saliva. — s. ducts. Ca- 
nals that convey saliva to mouth. 

sal-i-va'tion. An excessive flow of saliva. 

salt. (1) Any union of a base with an acid; 
(2) Chlorid of sodium. 

salt-pe'ter. Potassium nitrate ; nitre. 

salve. An ointment. [from chyle. 

san-gui-fi-ca'tion. Formation of blood 

san'guine. Bloody ; hopeful ; cheerful. 

san'i-ta-ry. Pertaining to health. — s. sci- 
ence. Science of cleansing and making 
healthy. 

san-i-ta'tion. Act of making healthy. 

sa-phe'na. A name given to two large 
veins of the leg. 

sa-phe'nous. Pertaining to saphena. 

sa-pon-i-fi-ca'tion. A conversion into soap. 

sap-ro-gen'ic. Pus-forming. [tier. 

sap-rcg'e-nous. Arising in decaying mat- 

sap'ro-phyte. A plant deriving its sub- 
stance from dead organic matter. 

sap-ro-phyt'ic. Pertaining to a saprophyte. 

sar-co-lem'ma. A delicate membrane sur- 
rounding muscle fiber, [connective tissue. 

sar-co'ma. A tumor of modified embryonic 

sar-to'ri-us. The longest muscle in body ; 
tailor's muscle that aids ir flexing knee. 

sat'el-lite. Vein accompanying an artery. 

sat'u-rate. To fill to excess. 

sat-u-ra'tion. Condition of holding in solu- 
tion of a solid capable of being contained. 

scab. Crust formed over a wound or ulcer. 

sca'bi-es. The itch ; a contagious, parasitic 
skin-disease. 

scale. A small lamina of detached cuticle 
or bone. 

sca-le'nus. A muscle of the neck. 

scalp. Integument covering cranium. 



G4S 



CHAM PI OX TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 



scaph'oid. Boat-shaped ; hollowed out. — ■ 
s. bone. A bone of carpus and tarsus. 

scap'u-la. A large flat triangular bone of 
shoulder. [ease with scarlet eruption. 

scar-la-ti'na. An epidemic contagious dis- 

scar'let fever. Same as Scarlatina. 

Scar'pa's triangle. A triangular space in 
upper front part of thigh. 

sci-at'ic. Pertaining to ischium or hip-bone. 

scir'rhus. A hard form of carcinoma. 

scle'ra. Outer membrane of eyeball. 

scle'ral. Pertaining to the sclera. 

scle-ri'tis. Inflammation of the sclera. 

scle-ro'sis. Morbid thickening of a tissue. 

scle-rot'ic. Hard ; indurated. 

scrof'u-la. Tubercular disease of lymphat- 
ics ; chromic edenitis. 

scro'tal. Pertaining to scrotum. 

scro'tum. Sac containing testes. [weight. 

scrapie. Twenty grains apothecaries 

scurf. Fxfoliated cuticle of scalp. 

scu'ti-form Having form of a shield. 

seam. A suture. 

se-ba'ceous. Pertaining to or appearing like 
fat. — s. glands. Glands in the corium of 
the skin secreting sebum, [baceous glands. 

se'bum. Fatty matter secreted by the se- 

se-cre'ta. Substance secreted by a gland. 

se-cre'tion. Functions of glands and fol- i 
licles ; substance secreted. 

se-cre'to-ry. Performing secretion. 

sec'tion. A division by cutting. 

sed'a-tive. Soothing. 

sed'en-ta-ry. Occupied in setting. 

sed-i-ment. Matter settled from a liquid. 

seg'ment. A small piece ; section ; lobe. 

seg'ment-al. Pertaining to segment. 

selTa. A saddle-shaped body. — s. turcica. 
The pituitary fossa. 

se'men. Fecundating fluid of male. 

sem'i. Half. 

sem-i-lu'nar. Crescent-shaped. — s. valves. 
Valves at pulmonary and aortic openings. 

sem-i-mem'bra-nous. Partially membran- 
ous ; a muscle of the thigh. 

sem'i-nal. Pertaining to the semen. 

se'nile. Aged ; pertaining to senility. — s. 
gangrene. A gangrene of extremities in 
the aged. [becility. 

se-nil'i-ty. Weakening of old age or im- 

sen-sa'tion. Corporeal feeling. 

sen'si-tive. Capable of feeling; easily af- 
fected by outside influences. 

sense. The perceptive faculty. 

sens'or-gran-ules. Sensorium ; a common 
center of sensation. 



sen-so'ri-al. Pertaining to the sensorium. 

sen-so'ri-um. A common center of sensa- 

sen'sor-y. Pertaining to sensation, [tion. 

sep'sis. Putrefaction ; septicemia. 

sep'tic. Relating to putrefaction. 

sep-tic-e'mi-a, sept-e'mi-a. A morbid con- 
dition from absorption of septic products. 

sep-to-py-e'mi-a. Combined septicemia 
and pyemia. 

sep-to-py-e'mic. Pertaining to septopye- 

sep'tum. Dividing membrane or wall. [mia. 

se'quel, se-que'la. A supervening disease. 

ser-al-bu'min. Albumin of the blood. 

se'ries. An order cr arrangement of one 
after another according to some law or 
rule. 

se-ro-fi'brin-ous. Composed of serum and 
fibrin. — s. membrane. A membrane com- 
posed of serum and fibrin. 

se'rous. Having nature of serum. — blood-s. 
Whey ; serum of milk. — s. albumin. Same 
as Seralbumin. — s. globulin. Same as Fi- 
brinoplastin. — s. cavities. Cavities of 
the serous sacs,--s. membrane. That which 
secretes serous fluids. — s. sacs. The ser- 
ous membranes. 

ser'ra-ted. Notched like a saw. 

se'rum. Fluid constituent of blood. 

ses'a-moid. Resembling a grain. — s. bones. 
Small bones developed in tendons. 

sex. The state or condition of being either 

sex'u-al. Pertaining to sex. [male or female. 

shaft. A long and cylindrical body or part. 

shank. Popular name for the tibia or shin. 

sheath. Covering ; an investing substance. 

shin. The anterior edge of the tibia. 

shin-bone. The tibia. 

ship-fever. Typhus fever. 

shock. A sudden or violent sensation ; a 
stroke ; prostration of bodily functions. 

shoul'der. Part of trunk between neck and 
free portion of arm. — s.-bl2de, s.-bone. 
The scapula. 

shred. A small, irregular or jagged strip 
torn or cut off; fragment or particle. 

shred'dy. Consisting of or characterized by 

sigh. A long, deep inspiration. [shreds. 

sight. The faculty of vision. 

sig'moid. Shaped like Greek letter S. — s. 
flexure. Lower part of colon. 

sil'i-ca. Silicon dioxid. 

sil'i-con. Xon-metallic element, [substance. 

sim'ple. Not compound ; consisting of one 

sim-u-la'tion. Counterfeiting disease. 

sin'ci-put. Anterior and upper part of heacj. 

sin'is-ter. Pertaining to the left ; left. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



649 



sin'u-ous. Waxy ; winding. 

si'nus. A hollow, cavity, recess, or pocket ; 
a large channel containing venous blood ; 
a cavity within a bone. — s. venosus. A dil- 
atation of the termination of venous chan- 
nels, forming a separate chamber. 

skel'e-ton. The frame-work of the body, 
composed of bone and cartilage. . 

skin. The membranous external invest- 
ment of an animal ; the integument. — ■ 
tiue s. Cutis or derma. — s.-siip. Slipping 
of the cuticle. 

skull. Bony frame-work of head ; cranium. 

skull'cap. The sinciput ; calvarium. 

slough. To cast off, as dead from living 
tissue ; shed ; to separate or fall away ; 
dead tissue separated and thrown off from 
• the living parts ; a scab. 

small'pox. An acute, specific, infectious 
disease, resulting from a specific morbid 
poison. [perceived ; the olfactory sense. 

smell. Sense by means of which odors are 

sneez'ing. An explosive expulsion of air 
through the nasal passages and mouth. 

snor'ing. Breathing through the nose and 
open mouth with a hoarse rough noise. 

sock'et. The concavity of an articulation. 

so'da. A white alkaline compound ; sodium 
carbonate; sal soda. 

so'di-um. A silver-white alkaline metallic 
element. — s. chlorid. Common salt. 

soft. Xot bony or cartilaginous. — s. palate. 
Soft posterior portion of the mouth. 

sof 'ten-ing. Making or becoming soft ; mor- 
bid degeneration or softening of a part. 

so'lar plex'us. A large plexus of nervous 
system found in front of spine. 

sole. Bottom surface of foot, [tending foot. 

so-le'us. A muscle of calf that assists in-ex- 

sol'i-ta-ry. Not in a cluster; single; sepa- 
rate — s. glands. Scattered lymphoid fol- 
licles in walls of small intestines. 

sol-u-bil'i-ty. State of being soluble. 

sol'u-ble. Capable of being dissolved; dis- 
soluble. 

so-lu'tion. Diffusion of a solid in a liquid. 

sol'vent. Having power of dissolving; a 
liquid capable of dissolving substances. 

so-mat'ic. Pertaining to body ; physical ; 
corporeal. — s. death. Death of entire body. 

so-por-if'ic. Medicine that produces deep 
sleep. 

sore. An ulcer, chafe, or wound ; painful. 

sound. Sensation produced through organ 
of hearing; having all organs or faculties 
intact. [tart. 

sour. Opposite of sweet to the taste; acid; 



space. Inclosed or partially inclosed part 

spas-mod'ic. Pertaining to spasm, [of body. 

spe-cif'ic. Distinctly or plainly set forth ; 
specific ; having some distinct medicinal 
or pathological property. — s. gravity. 
The weight of a substance compared with 
water. [Suspensory cord of testis. 

sper-mat'ic. Pertaining to semen. — s. cord. 

sphe'noid. (1) Cuneiform ; wedge-shaped. 
(2) One of the small cranial bones at an- 

sphere. A globe. [terior base of skull. 

spher'i-cal. Like a sphere. 

sphe'roid. A solid resembling a sphere. 

sphinc'ter. A muscle constricting an ori- 
fice. — s. ani. Muscle constricting the anus. 

spic'u-la. A small spike-shaped fragment 
of bone. [ments of bone. 

spic'u-la-ted. Full of spike-shaped frag- 

Spi-ge'li-an lobe. A lobe of the liver pro- 
jecting backward. 

spi'nal. Pertaining to spine. — s. canal. 
Hollow within vertebral column. — s. 
column. Back-bone. — s. marrow. Spinal 
cord. — s. nerves. Nerves given off from 

spine. The vertebral column, [spinal cord. 

spi'ral. In the form of a corkscrew. 

Spi-ril'lum (pi. spi-ril'la). A spiral-formed 
bacterium. — s. choleras Asiaticae. Bacteri- 
um that causes cholera. [substance. 

spir'it. An alcoholic solution of volatile 

splanch'non. The viscera ; the entrails. 

splanch'nic. Pertaining to the viscera. 

spleen. Largest ductless gland in body. 

splen'ic. Pertaining to the spleen. 

splen-i-za'tion. Becoming like the spleen. 

splint. A support for ends of a fractured 

spon'gi-form. Similar to a sponge, [bone. 

spon'gy. Porous ; hke a sponge. 

spore. Reproductive organ of a cryptogam ; 
any germ or reproductive element less 
organized than a true cell. 

spon-ta'ne-ous. Taking place without aid 
or volition. 

spo-rad'ic. Scattered ; occurring in isolated 
cases. — s. cholera. Cholera morbus. 

spo-ro-gen'ic, spo-Tog'e-nous. Producing 
spores ; producing by means of spores. 

spct'ted fever. Cerebrospinal meningitis. 

sprain. A violent straining of ligaments. 

spray. Liquor vaporized by a strong air 

spu'tum. Expectorated matter. [current. 

squa'ma. A scale or lamina. 

squa'mous. Scaly. 

sta'bi-le. Xot moving ; permanent. 

stage. A period of disease. 

stag'nate. To cease motion. 



650 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



stag-na'tion. Cessation of motion. 

stain. A dye; a discoloration. 

stanch. To check or stop a flow. 

stand'ard. An established rule or model. 

starch. Amylum. 

sta'sis. Stagnation of the blood current. 

ste-ap'sin. An unorganized ferment con- 
tained in pancreatic juice. 

ste'ar-in. A compound of stearic acid and 
glyceryl found in the harder animal fats. 

stench. An ill-smell ; an offensive odor. 

sten-osed'. Narrowed ; contracted. 

sten-o'sis. A narrowing or constriction. 

Sten'son's duct. See Duct. 

ster'ile. Barren ; not fertile. 

ster-il-i-za'tion. Destruction of germs by 
heat or a disinfectant. ttive. 

ster'il-ize. To render sterile or unproduc- 

ster'il-i-zer. Instrument for sterilization. 

ster'nal. Pertaining to the sternum. 

steth'o-scope. A tube for conveying sounds 
in auscultation. [activity. 

stim'u-lant. An agent increasing functional 

stim'u-lus. Anything exciting an organ. 

stitch. A sharp laminating pain ; to sew. 

sto'ma. The mouth. 

sto-ma-ti'tis. Inflammation of the mouth. 

stom'ach. Chief digestive organ of body. 

stool. Evacuation of the bowels. 

stran'gu-la-ted. Constricted to such degree 
as to have its circulation cut off. — s. her- 
nia. Irreducible hermia. 

stran-gu-la'tion. Act of strangulating; the 
state of being strangulated. 

strat'i-fied. Arranged in layers. 

strat'i-form. Formed into layers. 

stra'tum. A sheet or layer of tissue char- 
acterized by some special form or arrange- 
ment of structure. — s. corneum. Outer 
epidermic layer. — s. granulosum. Gran- 
ular layer of the retina. 

strep-to-coc'cus. A curved or twisted chain 
of micrococci. 

stri'ate. Marked with furrows. 

stric'ture. A contraction of a duct or tube. 

stroke. A popular name for apoplexy. 

stro'ma. Foundation tissue of an organ. 

struc'ture. An organ ; composition of an 

stru'ma. Scrofula. [organ. 

strych'ni-a. An alkaloid of mix vomica. 

sty'li-form. Resembling stylus. 

sub-a-rach'noid. Beneath arachnoid coat 
of brain. — s. space. Space beneath arach- 
noid coat of brain. 

sub-cla'vi-an. Under the collar-bone. 

sub-cu-ta'ne-ous Beneath the skin. 



sub-di-vi'sion. After the first division. 

sub-ja'cent. Next to. 

sub'ject. A body for dissection. [self. 

sub-jec'tive. Internal; pertaining to one's 

sub-lin'gual. Beneath the tongue. — s. 
gland. Gland beneath tongue. 

sub-max'il-la-ry. Beneath the lower jaw. 

sub-mer'sion. State of teing submerged. 

sub-mu'cous. Beneath mucous membrane. 

sub-per-i-to-ne'al. Beneath peritoneum. 

sub-serv'i-ent. Acting in interest of an- 

s^'dor. Sweat ; perspiration. [other. 

su-dor-if'er-ous. Producing sweat. — s. 

glands. Sweat-glands. 

suf-fo-ca'tion. A stoppage of respiration. 

sul'ca-ted. Grooved ; furrowed, [volutions. 

sul'ci of brain. Depressions between con- 

sul'phate. A salt of sulphuric acid. — s. of 
aluminum. Aluminum and sulphuric 
acid combined. [an element. 

sulphid. A combination of sulphur with 

sul'phur. Brimstone. 

sul'phu-ret-ed hy'dro-gen. Sulphur and 
hydrogen combined ; a gas. 

sul-phu'ric. Combined with sulphur. — s. 
acid. One of the mineral acids. 

su'per-. A prefix denoting upon or above. 

su-per-fi'cial. Near or confined to the sur- 
face. — s. fascia. A fibro-areolar tissue just 

su-pe'ri-or. The upper, [beneath the skin. 

su'pi-na-ted. Turned upon the back. 

su-pi-na'tion. A turning of the palm up- 
ward ; the attitude of lying upon the bed. 

su'pi-na-tor. A muscle that supinates. 

sup-ple-men'tal air. Air remaining in 
lungs after a normal expiration. 

sup-pres'sion. Concealment ; retention. 

sun'stroke. A sudden cerebral disturbance 
due to excessive heat, usually of the sun. 

sum'mer complaint. The cholera of infants. 

sup-pu-ra'ticn. The formation of pus. 

su'pra-. A prefix, above, beyond, or upon. 

su-pra-or'bit-al. Above orbit of the eye. 

su-pra-re'nal. Above the kidney. — s. body 
or capsule. A gland-like organ of un- 
known function situated upon the kidney. 

su'ral. Pertaining to calf of leg. 

sur'face. Exterior or face of body, [fluenced. 

sus-cep-ti-bil'i-ty. State of being easily in- 

sus-cep'ti-bie. Sensitive to an influence. 

sus-pend'ed an-i-ma'tion. Temporary ces- 
sation of vital functions. 

su'ture. Junction of cranial bones ; seam. 

sweat. Secretion of sweat-glands. — s. ducts. 
Canals leading from sweat-glands to pores, 
s.-glands. Sudoriferous glands. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



651 



sweet'bread. The pancreas. 

swell'ing. Tumefaction ; enlarging. 

Syl'vi-us, fissure cf. Fissure between an- 
terior and middle lobes of cerebrum. 

sym-pa-thet'ic system. Series of ganglions 
and nerves dominating the viscera and in- 
voluntary muscles. 

sym'phy-sis. A junction of bones. — s. pu- 
bis. A junction of pubic bones. 

syn-ar-thro'sis. Immovable articulation. 

syn-chon-dro'sis. Union by ■intervening' 

syn'co-pe. Swooning or fainting, [cartilage. 

syn-o'vi-a. Lubricating fluid of a synovial 
membrane. 

syn-o'vi-al. Pertaining to synovia. — s. 
membrane. Sac containing synovia within 
a joint. [uniting elements. 

syn'the-sis. A formation of a compound by 

syn-thet'ic. Pertaining to synthesis, [ease. 

syph'i-lis. A specific infectious venereal dis- 

syr'inge. Instrument for injecting fluids. 

sys'tem. Methodic arrangement of parts ; 

sys-te-mat'ic. Methodic, [animal economy. 

sys-tem'ic. Pertaining to a system. — s. cir- 
culation. Entire circulation of body. 

sys'to-le. Contraction of heart and arteries. 



ta'ble. A layer or plate of bone. — t. of the 
skull. Internal and external plates of the 

tache. A spot or coloration. [bone. 

tac'tiJe. Pertaining to sense of touch. 

tail. The caudal extremity. 

tam'pon. A plug of lint or cotton. 

tap'ping. Removing water or other fluid 

tar'sal. Pertaining to tarsus, [from cavities. 

tar'sus. The instep. [rymal gland. 

tear-duct. See Duct. — t.-gland. See Lach- 

tears. The secretion of the lachrymal gland. 

teeth. Organs of mastication. 

teg'u-ment. Relating to the skin. 

tem'per-a-ture. Degree of intensity of heat. 
— normal t. Temperature of a body in a 
state of health. 

tem-po-ro-max'il-la-ry. Pertaining to tem- 
poral and inferior maxillary bones. 

ten'di-nous. Pertaining to a tendon. 

ten'do, ten'don. A white, fibrous tissue, the 
attachment of muscles. — t. of A-chil'les. 
Large tendon of heel. 

ten'sion. Act of stretching. 

ten'sor. A muscle making a part tense. 

tep'id. Warm ; about blood heat. 

te'res. A round muscle, t. lig'a-ment. 

Round ligament of hip-joint, 
es'tes. Glandular bodies in scrotum. 



tet'a-nus. A disease produced by bacillus 
tetani ; lockjaw. — t. ne-o-na-to'ri-um. 
A spasmodic disease of infants. 

tet-ra-coe'eus. A micrococcus occurring in 
clusters forming groups of four. 

ther-mom'e-ter. An instrument for meas- 
uring intensity of heat. — cen'ti-grade t. 
See Centigrade. — Fah'ren-heit t. One in 
which the interval between freezing and 
boiling points is divided into 180 degrees, 
the zero point being 32 degrees below freez- 
ing of water. 

thigh. Upper part of lower extremity. — t. 
bone. Bone of the thigh; femur. 

tho-rac'ic. Pertaining to thorax. — t. aorta. 
Descending aorta within chest. — t. vis- 
cera. Viscera within thorax. 

throat. Anterior part of neck. 

throm-bo'sis. Formation of a thrombus. 

throm'bus. A blood-clot in a vessel at point 
of obstruction. 

thumb. The inner digit of hand or foot. 

thy'mus. Glandular organ at base of tongue. 

thy'roid. Scuti.'orm or shield-shaped. — t. 
body. A ductlecs glandular body at upper 
part of trachea. — t. cartilage. Largest 
laryngeal cartilage. 

tib'i-a. Inner and larger bone of the leg. 

tinc'ture. Alcoholic solution of medicinal 
substance. 

tis'sue. An aggregation of similar cells and 
fibers forming a distinct structure. — a. re'- 
o-lar t. A form of connective tissue made 
up of cells and delicate elastic fibers in- 
terlacing. — ad'i-pose t. Connective tissue 
with flat cells lodged in the meshes. — car- 
ti-lag'i-nous t. Cartilage. — connective t. 
General name for all tissues of body that 
support essential elements or parenchy- 
ma. — ep-i-t'.ie'li-al t. Epithelium. — fi- 
bro-a-re'o-lar t. Tissue made up of fibrous 
and areolar tissue. — mus'cu-lar t. Muscle. 
— ner-vcus t. See Nerve. — os'se-ous t. 

toe. A digit of the foot. [See Bone. 

tongue. Organ of taste and speech. 

ton'ic. Relating to tone. — t. contraction. 
A continuous contraction. [fauces. 

ton'sil. A glandular organ on each side of 

tor'cu-lar He-roph'i-li. A cavity before in- 
ternal occipital protuberance for venous 
sinuses. [inactive. 

tor'pid. Affected with torpor ; benumbed ; 

tor'sion. A twisting. 

tor'tu-ous. Crooked. 

touch. The tactile sense; palpation. 



r>52 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



tox-e'mi-a. A poisoned state of blood. I 

tox'ic. Poisonous. 

tox-i-co-gen'ic. Producing poison. 

tox-if'er-ous. Carrying poison. 

tox'in. Any toxic ptomain. 

tra'che-a. The windpipe. 

tract. A distinct more or less denned region 
usually much longer than broad ; a course. 
— alimentary t. Alimentary canal extend- 
ing from mouth to anus. — digestive t. 
See Alimentary Tract. 

trac'tion. A drawing or pulling, [syncope. 

trance. A form of catalepsy; protracted 

trans-fu'sion. A transfer of blood into the 

tran'sient. Temporary. [veins. 

trans-lu'cent. Partly transparent. 

trans-mi-gra'tion. Passage of cells through 
a membranous septum. 

trans-mis'sion. Transfer of a disease. 

tran-spi-ra'tion. Act of passing fluid, va- 
por, or gas, through a membrane. 

tran-su-da'tion. An oozing of fluid through 
skin and other tissues. 

tran-sude'. To ooze through. 

trans-ver-sa'lis. A structure that lies across 
another. — t. fascia. Fascia that passes 
across abdomen beneath the muscles. 
t. col'li. Muscle of Lack part of neck. 

trans-verse'. Lying across. [row. 

tra-pe'zi-um. First bone of second carpal 

trau'ma. A wound; an injury. 

trau-mat'ic. Pertaining to a wound. 

trau'ma-tism. Condition of one suffering 
from injury, [sides and with three angles. 

tri'an-gle. Space bounded by three lines or 

tri'ceps. Three-headed muscle of the arm. 

tri-chi'na. A genus of nematode worms. 

tri-cus'pid. Three pointed. — t. valve. Valve 
1 etween right auricle and ventricle. 

troch'le-a. A puiley-like process. [ities. 

trunk. Body except head, neck, and extrem- 

tryp'sin. A proteolytic ferment contained 
in pancreatic juice. 

tryp-sin'o-gen. A granular substance con- 
tained in cells of pancreas. 

tube. A pipe-like structure or instrument. 
— air t. The bronchial tube. 

tu'ber-cle. A small eminence ; a small nod- 
ule of granular cells constituting the con- 
dition called tuberculosis. 

tu-ber'cu-lar. Pertaining to or containing 
tubercule.— t. bacilli. The bacilli that 
cause tuberculosis. — t. men-in-gi'tis. Men- 
ingitis caused by tubercular bacilli. 



tu-ber-cu-lo'sis. Infectious disease due to 
presence of tubercular bacilli ; consump- 

tu'bule. A minute tube. [tion. 

tu-me-fac'tion. A swelling of a part. 

tu'mor. A swelling ; abnormal enlargement. 
— benign t. One that is not malignant. 
— cystic t. One made up of cysts. — en- 
cysted t. Having cysts. — fibroid t. A 
fibroma. — malignant t. One that even- 
tually destroys life. — ovarian t. A tumor 
connected with the ovary. 

tu'ni-ca. An enveloping or lining mem- 
brane. — t. ad-ven-ti'ti-a. Outer coat of an 
artery. — t. in'ti-ma. Inner coat of an ar- 
tery. — t. me'di-a. Middle coat of an artery. 

tur'bi-nal. Turbinated bones. 

tur'bi-na-ted. Top-shaped. [of an organ. 

tur-j«es'cence. A swelling or enlargement 

tur'gid. Unnaturally distended, as by con- 

tym-pan'ic. Drum-like, [tained air or liquid. 

tym'pa-num. The middle-ear cavity, [form. 

type. A representative or characteristic 

ty'phoid. Resembling typhus ; an infectious 
fever marked by great prostration. 

ty'phus fever. An epidemic contagious 

typ'i-cal. Characteristic. [fever. 

u 

ul'cer. Suppuration upon a free surface; 

an open sore. 
ul-cer-a'tion. Process of ulcer-formation, 
ul'na. Large bone of forearm, 
ul'nar. Relating to the ulna, 
ul'ti-mate. Farthest or most remote, 
um-bil'ic-al. Pertaining to umbilicus. — u. 

arteries. Arteries of umbilical cord. — u. 

cord. See Cord, Umbilical. — u. region. 

Region around umbilicus. — u. vein. Vein 

of umbilical cord, 
um-bi-li'cus. The naval. [sensibility. 

un-con'scious-ness. State of being without 
unc'tion. Act of anointing; anointment, 
unc'tu-ous. Greasy, 
un'guent. An ointment. 
u-ni-cel'Iu-lar. Having but one cell, 
u-ni-lat'er-al. Affecting but one side, 
un-stri'a-ted. Xot striped. — u. muscular 

fiber. Involuntary muscular fiber, 
tp'per ex-trem'i-ties. Organs of tact and 

prehension; arms. [umbilicus, 

u'ra-chus. A fibrous cord from bladder to 
u're-a. Chief solid constituent of urine, 
ur-e'mi-a. Toxic condition of blood from 

accumulation of urea, 
ur-e'mic. Due to or marked by uremia. 



PRACTICAL DICTIONARY 



653 



u-re'ter. Tube carrying urine from kidney 

to bladder, 
u-re'thra. Excretory canal of bladder, 
u'ric. Pertaining to urine. — u. acid. White, 

tasteless, almost insoluble compound 

found in urine and elsewhere. 
u'ri-na-ry. Pertaining to urine. — u. canal. 

Canal including ureter, bladder, and ure- 
u'rine. Excretion of the kidneys. [thra. 
u-ri-nif'e-rous. Carrying urine. — u. tu' 

bules. Minute canals in renal substance. 
u'ter-ine. Pertaining to the uterus. 
u'te-rus. The womb. [palate, 

u'vu-la. Pendent fleshy portion of the soft 



vac-ci-na'tion. Inoculation with vaccine 
virus to protect against smallpox. 

vac'cine. Lymph from a cowpox vesicle. 

vac-cin'i-a. Cowpox. 

vac'u-um. A space exhausted of air. 

va-gi'na. Canal from vulva to uterus. 

vag'i-nal. Pertaining to vagina. 

valve. A fold across a canal or opening ob- 
structing passage in one direction. 

val'vu-lae con-ni-vent'es. Folds of mucous 
membrane in the small intestine. 

valv'u-lar. Pertaining to a valve. 

va'por. Gaseous form of a substance. 

var'Ucose. Swollen ; knotted. — v. veins. 
Knotted veins usually in lower extremi- 

va-ri'o-la. Smallpox. [ties. 

va'ri-o-loid. Slight form of smallpox modi- 
fied by vaccination. 

vas (pi. va'sa). A vessel or duct. 

va'sa brev'i-a. Short vessels.— v. va-so' 
rum. Vessels of a vessel ; minute blood- 
vessels that supply coats of other vessels. 

vas'cu-lar. Pertaining to vessels or ducts. 
— v. system. Entire arrangement of ves- 
sels for the circulation of fluids of body. 

vas-cu-lar'i-ty. Quality of being vascular. 

vas-o-mo'tor. Producing movement in the 
walls of vessels. [growth. 

veg-e-ta'tion. Morbid ; having fungous 

vein. A vessel returning blood to heart. 

ve'lum. A veil or veil-like structure. 

ve'na. A vein. — v. portae. Portal vein. — v. 
cava. One of the largest veins (superior 
and inferior) that enter the right auricle. 

ve'nae com'i-tes. Two veins accompanying 
an artery. 

ve'nous. Pertaining to a vein.— v. conges- 
tion. An excessive amount of venous 
blood in snail vessels of surface. — v. 
valves. Valves, in veins of extremities that 
prevent blood from flowing backward. 



ven'ter. The abdomen or belly. — v. of the 
ilium. The iliac region. [Region of belly. 

ven'tral. Pertaining to belly. — v. region. 

ven'tri-cle. (1) A small belly-like cavity. 
(2) Upper right and left cavities of heart. 

ven'ules. Little veins. 

ver'mi-form. Worm-like. — v. appendix. 
A worm-shaped tube opening into cecum. 

ver'te-bra (pi. -brae). A bony segment of 
spinal column. - 

ver-te-bral. Pertaining to a vertebra. — v. 
column. Spinal column ; back-bone. 

ver'tex. Crown or top of head. 

ver'ti-cal. In a -perpendicular line. 

ve-si'ca. The bladder. [der. 

ves'i-cal. Pertaining to or supplying blad- 

ves-i-ca'tion. Production of a blister. 

ve-sic'u-lar. Pertaining to vesicals. 

ves'sel. A tube conveying fluids of body. 

vi'a-ble. Capable of maintaining life. 

vi-bra'tion. A swinging back and forth. 

vi-ca'ri-ous. Taking place of another; as- 
sumption of function of an organ by an- 
other. 

vil'lus (pl.-li). One of numerous minute 
vascular projections from mucous mem- 
brane of intestines. 

vir'u-lence. Noxiousness ; malignity. 

vir'u-lent. Having nature of a poison. 

vi'rus. A morbid product ; a pathogenic mi- 
crobe. 

vis'ce-ra. Contents of cavities of body. 

vis'cer-al. Pertaining to viscera. — v. anat- 
omy. Anatomy of the viscera. 

vis-cid. A gummy substance produced in 
viscous fermentation. 

vis'cus (pi. vis'ce-ra). Any organ enclosed 
within one of the great cavities of body. 

vi'sion. Sight. 

vis'u-al. Pertaining to vision. 

vi'ta. Life. 

vi'tal. Pertaining to life. — v. functions. 
Those upon which life depends. — v. or- 
gans. Throat, lungs, brain, and all other 
essential organs to life. 

vi-tal'i-cy. Vital principle of life. 

vi'tals. Organs essential to life. 

vi-tel'lus. Protopfasmic contents of ovum 
that feed developing embryo. 

vit're-ous. Class-like. v. humor. A trans- 
parent jelley-like tissue filling ball of eye. 

vo'cal. Pertaining to voice. — v. cord'. 
Small cords at glottis. [vocal cords 

voice. Sound produced by vibration of the 

vol'a-tile. Readily evaporating. 



654 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 



vo-li'tion. The power of willing. 

vol'untary. Under control of the will. — 
v. muscle. A muscle under control of will. 

vol'vu-lus. A twisting of an intestine. 

vo'mer. Thin plate of bone between nos- 
trils. 

vom'it. To eject from stomach through 
mouth. [organs. 

vul'va. External opening of female genital 

w 

waist. Narrow portion of trunk above hips, 
walls. Sides of any cavity or vesicle. 
waste material. Excretions of the body. 
white of the eye. The conjunctiva. 
Wil'lis, circle of. Circle formed by arteries 

at base of brain to equalize pressure, 
wind'pipe. Tube leading from pharynx to 

the air-cells ; trachea, 
womb. See Uterus. [sutures. 

Wor'mi-an bones. Small bones in cranial 
wound. Creak in continuity of soft parts. 
wrist. The carpus. — w. -joint. Joint of the 

carpus and forearm. 



xan-thic. Yellow. 

xan'thin. A white crystalline compound 
contained in blood, urfne, and other secre- 
tions, [the skin. 

xan-tho-der'ma. A morbid yellowness of 

xiph'oid. Sword-like. — x. appendix. Third 
and last piece of sternum. 

X-rays. Popular name for Roentgen rays. 



yawn-ing. Deep inspiration ; gaping, 
yel-low fe'ver. An epidemic disease of hot 

moist regions, 
y-lig'a-ment. Ileofemoral ligament. 



zyg-o-mat'ic. Pertaining to cheek-bone. 

zy-mot'ic. Relating to fermentation. — z. 
di:e-res. Any epidemic, endemic, or con- 
tagious disease, produced by some morbific 
principle acting on system like a ferment. 

zy'rr.o-gen. A substance that develops by 
internal changes, without apparent de- 
composition, into a chemical ferment or 
enzyme. 



ADDENDA. 



al-bu'mose. A first product of the splitting 
of proteids by enzymes. 

a-me'ba. A genus of rhizopods. [ba. 

am-e'boid. Having movements of an ame- 

am'id. A compound derived from ammo- 
nia by substitution of an acid radicle for 
hydrogen. 

am-pho-ter'ic. Having power of altering 
both red and blue test-paper. 

am'yl-um. Starch ; a valuable nutrient. 

ben'zene, ben'zol. A liquid hydrocarbon 

car-bam'id. Urea. [from coal-tar. 

cho-les'ter-in. A monatomic alcohol, found 
in blood, nerve-tissue, and bile. 

del-i-ques'cent. Liquefying from absorp- 
tion of atmospheric moisture. 

di'as-tase. A nitrogenous ferment of malt. 

e-las'tin. .Main constituent of yellow elas- 
tic tissue. 



en'zym. An unorganized, hydrolytic fer- 
eth'yl-ene. Bicarbureted hydrogen, [ment. 
fi-bro'ma. A tumor of fibrous tissue. 
fi-brin-o-plas'tin. See Paraglobulin. 
glu'co-side. A body containing glucose 

with some organic principle, 
hy-dra'tion. Impregnating a substance 

with water. [water, 

hy-dro-lyt'ic. Producing decomposition of 
ke'tone. A compound of carbonic oxid with 

two univalent hydrocarbons. 
malt'ose. A sugar derived from action of 

diastase on barley. 
r.u-cle-o-=l-bu'min. A nuclein from cell- 
protoplasm, 
nu-cle-o-pro'te-id. A nuclein having a 

relatively large amount of albumin. 
par-a-glob'u-lin. A native proteid from 

Llood-serum. 



GENERAL INDEX 



Abott, observations of, 505, 506. 
Abdomen. 

C ontents of, 43. 
Regions of the, 109. 

Epigastric (.or epigastrium), 110. 
Hypochondriac (or hypochon- 

drium), left, 109, 110; right, 
109. 
Hypogastric, 109, 111. 
Inguinal, left, 109, 111. 

Right, 111. 
Lumbar, left, 109, 111. 

Right, 109, 110. 
Umbilical, 109, 110. 
Abdominal cavity, the, 92. 
Contents, position of, 307. 
Openings, 109. 
Organs requiring special treatment, 

3(J8. 
Regions, its, 305. 
To inject the, 308. 
Viscera, 109. 
Absorbents, the, 61. 
Skin, the, 61. 

Lymphatic system, the, 67. 
Acetabulum, the, 26. 
Adam's apple. 83. 
Adipocere, 270, 272. 
Air-passages, asphyxia from mechanical 

obstructions of, 551. 
Albumin, 210. 
Albuminoids, 21(1. 
Alimentary canal, the, 89. 
Allan 'on formaldehyde, 521. 
American Public Health Association, 
experiments by committee on disinfec- 
tants of, 512. 
Ammonia, 216. 
Amylopsin, 212. 
Anatomy, morbid, 337. 

Visceral, 70. 
Ancient embalming, 21S. 
Anthrax spores, Koch's experiment up- 
on, 5D4. 
Antiseptics, 509. 

.Antiseptics and disinfectants, 509. 
Apnocea, asphyxia, 257. 
Apoplectic habit, the, 433. 
Appendix auriculae, 120. 
Vermiforn is, 109, 111. 
.Arachnoid, the, 77. 
Arbor vitse, the, 80. 
Arsenic, poisoning by, 46£. 
Arterial anastomoses, 133. 

Embalming, 2s::. 
Artery or arteries, 132. 
Anastomotica magna, 159. 
Aorta. 110, 11, 38, 12, 99. 
Abdominal, 109. 138, 160. 
Arch, 138. 



Artery or arteries — Continued. 
Aorta — Continued. 

Thoracic, 138, 160. 
Arteriae receptaculi, 157. 
Auricular, posterior, 140. 
Axillary, 158, 297. 
Basilar, 157. 
Brachial, 159, 287. 
Bronchial, 86, 87, 60. 
Carotid, common, 139, 292. 

External, 140. 

Internal, 140. 
Celiac axis, 110, 160. 
Cerebral, anterior, 140, 157 
Middle, 140, 157. 
Posterior, 157. 
Choroid, anterior, 157 
Circle of Willis, 158. 
Circumflex, external, 173. 

Internal, 173. 
Coats, their, 133. 
Communicating, posterior, IS 
Coronary, 138. 
Dorsalis pedis, 174. 
Epigastric, deep, 164. 

Superficial, 164. 
Esophageal, 92, 160. 
Facial, 140. 
Femoral, 164, 290 
Gastric, 112, 160. 
Gastroepiploic, left, 112. 

Right, 112. 
Gluteal, 163. 

Hemorrhoidal, middle, 163. 
Hepatic, 116, 160. 
Iliac, 56. 

Circumflex, deep, 164. 

Common, 162. 

External, 163. 

Internal, 162. 

Anterior trunk, 162. 
Posterior trunk, 163. 

Superficial, 63, 164 
Iliolumbar, 163. 
Innominate, 139. 
Intercostals, 160. 
Large trunks, the, 132. 
Lingual, 145. 
Lumbar, 162. 
Mammary, internal, 158. 
Maxillary, internal, 140. 
Mediastinal, posterior, 160. 
Meningeal, anterior, 157. 
Mesenteric, inferior, 162. 

Superior, 162. 

Muscular branches, 173. 
( Ibturator, 163. 
( (ccipital, 140. 
( (pthalmic, 157. 
I Ivarian, 162. 
Palmer arch, deen, 159. 

Superficial, 159. 



G56 



CHAMPION TEXT-HonK ON EMBALMING 



Artery or arteries — Continued. 

Pancreatico-duodenal, inferior, 118. 

Superior, 78. 
Perforating, 173. 
Pericardiac, 10U. 
Pharyngeal, ascending, 140. 
Phrenic, 160. 

Inferior, 119. 
Plantar, external, 174. 

Internal, 174. 
Popliteal, 173. 
Profunda femoris, 173. 
Pudic, deep external, 173. 

Internal, 163. 

Superficial external, 173. 
Pulmonary, 87, 186. 
Pyloric, 112. 
Radial, 159, 295. 
Renal, 119, 162. 
Sacral, 162. 

Lateral, 163. 
Sacra media, 56, 02. 
Sciatic, 163. 
Spermatics, 162. 
Splenic, 160. 
Subclavian, 157. 

Left, 157 

Right, 157. 
Suprarenal, 110, 162. 
Suprascapular, 15S. 
Temporal. 14(1. 
Thyroid axis, 158. 

Inferior. 158. 

Superior, 1.4u. 
Tibial, anterior, 174. 297. 

Posterior, 174. 296. 
Transversals colli, 158. 
Tympanic. 157. 
Ulnar, 159. 

Umbilical or hypogastric, 105. 
Uterine, 163. 
Vaginal, 163. 
Vesical, inferior, 163. 

Middle, 163. 

Superior, 162. 
Vertebral, 157. 
Artificial respiration, Howard's m< 

of, 547. 
Asphyxia, 257. 
Asphyxia from — 

Advancing coma. 551. 

Breathing noxious gases. 551. 

Drowning, 550. 

Lightning stroke or electricity, 55: 

Mechanical obstruction of the 

passages, 551. 
Poisons or anesthetics, 551. 
Assyrians, embalming among the, 
Auditory canal, or meatus, 202. 
Author, portrait of, frontispiece. 
Axillary space, the, 60. 
Aztecs, methods of the, 233. 



B 



Babylonians, methods of the, 97. 
Bacillus, baciil,, 490. 

Anthrax. 378, 402. 

Cadaveris, 374, 403. 

Comma, 370. 

Diphtheria, 386. 

Pestis, bubonicae. 

Tetani, 377. 



Bacillus — Continued. 

Tubercular, 497. 

Tuberculosis. 360, 490. 

Typhoid, 353. 
Bacteria, their forms and growth, 488. 

In air, water, and earth, 404. 

Xon-pathogenic, 403, 496. 

Pathogenic, 40.;. 496. 
Bacteriology, history of, 483. 
Barlow on Asiatic cholera, 370. 
Behring, experiments of Dr., 506 
Bile, 113. 
Bilirubin, 213. 
Biliverdin, 213. 

Discoloration caused by, 320 
Bladder, ll'.l, 11, 122. 
Blood, 124, 129, 213. 

Arterial, 275. 

Cause of the arteries being erantv 

_ after death, 270. 

Characteristics and changes, its, 275. 

Circulation of, 130, 276. 

Circulation not destroyed bv tanning 
t' ■: heart. 324. 

Coagulation of, 214. 276. 
Collateral Circulation, 280. 
Composition of, 12!), 275. 

Corpuscles. 120. 

Crystals. 130. 

Plasma, the, 54. 

Serum, 124. 

Removal of the, 317. 

Basilic vein, through the, 322. 
Femoral vein, through the, 322. 
Heart direct, fro.n the. 317. 

Jugular vein, through the, 323. 

Methods, the. 317, 3-1. 

Reasons for its removal, 317. 

Venous, 275. 
Blood-vessels, the, 132. 

. transportation of, 528. 
Body, its composition and chemistry, 2i "o. 

Chemical constituents, the, 206. 

Chief chemical compounds, 207. 

Weight of the different parts, 206 
Bone or bones — 
Ankle-joint, the, 26. 

Articulations, 27. 

Atlas. 8. 

Axis, 25. 

Carpus, the, 26. 

Classification of, 5. 

Clavicle. 26. 

Coccyx, 25. 

Composition of the, 6. 

Cranial cavity, the, 8. 

Development of, 7. 

Distribution of the, 4. 

Elbow, the, 26. 

Extremities, the, 25. 

Femur, the, 26. 

Flat, the, 5. 

Foot, the, 27. 

Fresh or living, 6. 

General description of the, 4. 

Hand, the, 26. 

Haversian canals, 7. 

Head, of the, 8. 

Cranial cavity, the, 8. 

Skull and face, of the, 8. 
Skull-bones, the, 8. 
Hip-bones, 25. 



GENERAL INDEX 



651 



Bone or bones — Continued. 

Humerus, 26. 

Ilium, 59. 

Injury and repair of, 7. 

Innominate, the, 25. 

Irregular, the_, 5. 

Joints, the. 27. 
Structures, 27. 

Articular lamella, 27. 
Cartilage, 28. 
Fibro-cartilage, 2S. 
Synovial membrane, 28. 
Ligaments, the, 28. 

Kneecap, 26. 

Kneejoint, the, 26. 

Lacunae, the, 7. 

Ligaments, 27. 

Long, the, 5. 

Lower extremities, of the, 25. 

Metacarpal, 26. 

Metatarsus, the, 27. 

Number of, 4. 

Patella, 26. 

Phalanges, 26, 27. 

Pubic arch, 25. 

Radius, 26. 

Ribs, the, 25. 

Sacrum, 25. 

Scapula, the, 26. 

Sesamoid, 27. 

Short, the. 5. 

Shoulder, the, 26. 

Shoulder-blade, 26. 

Shoulder-ioint, the, 26. 

Skull, the, 8. 

Skull and face, 8. 

Spinal column, the, 8. 

Sternum, 25. 
Structure of the, 6, 

Sutures, cranial, 27. 

Tarsus, the, 27. 

Thigh-bone, 26. 

Tibia, the, 21. 

Trunk, the, 8. 

rina, 26. 

Upper extremities, of the, 26. 

Wormian, 27. 

Wrist-joint, 26. 
Brachial artery and basillic vein, the, 

280. 
Brain, the, 77, 78. 

Armor-vita;, the, 76. 

Cerebellum, the, 70. 

Cerebrum, the, 70. 

Corpus collosum, the. 75. 

Falx cerebelli, the. 76. 

Medulla oblongata, the, SO. 

Pons variolii, the, 80. 

Weight of. 20. 
Bristowe, case of obstinate constipation 

reported by. 416. 
Bronchi, the, 86. 
Bronchioles, SO. 
P.ronchocelc. 110. 
Iiuchner, experiments of, 400. 



Capillaries, tin-, L32, 133, 137. 

Pulmonary, 187. 
Capsule^, suprarenal, the, l"'-». 110, 110. 
Carbohydrates, 208. 



Carbonic acid, poisoning by, 466. 

Oxid, poisoning by, 467. 
Cartilage or cartilages, 28. 
Cartonage, the, 225. 
Casein, 215. 
Cauda equina, the, 76. 
Cavity embalming, 29S. 
Cecum, 114. 
Cerebellum, the, 75. 
Cerebro spinal system, 77. 
Cerebrum, the, 75. 
Changes of death, 264. 
Channels of infection, 498. 
Cheeks, 80, 92. 
Chelins, case of obstinate constipation 

reported by, 416. 
Chemical compounds of the body, chief, 

207. 

Bile, 213. 

Blood, 213. 

Carbohydrates, 208. 

Fats, 207. 

Gastric iuice, 211. 

Milk, 214. 

Pancreatic juice, 212. 

Proteins, 209. 

Saliva, 210. 

Urea, 214. 
Chemical constituents, the, 206. 
Chest, the, 84. 
Cholera spirillum, 370. 
Chvle, 69. 
Chyme, 113. 
Circulation of blood, 130. 

Arteries of the systemic, 138. 

Collateral, 280. 

Fetal, the, 193. 

Organs of, 123. 

Placental, 196. 

Pulmonary or lesser, 1S6, 276. 

Systemic, the, 123. 

Veins of the systemic, 175. 
Circulatory system, the, 123. 
Coal gas, poisoning by, 46S. 
Cocci or micrococci, 490. 
Colon, the, 110, 111, 115. 
Coma, 260. 
Comma bacillus, 370. 
Compendium of practical questions and 

answers, _ 565. 
Comsumption, to prevent the dissemina- 
tion of, 538. 
Contagion, infection, and, 497. 
Contents, table of, V. 
Coracoid process, the, 58. 
Cornea, the, 109. 
Corpus collossum, the, 75. 
Corrosive poisons, 457. 
_ Sublimate, 505. 
Cranial cavitv, the, 73. 

Nerves, the, 81. 
Cranium, the, 74. 
Cricoid cartilage, 02. 
Crural rings. 109. 
Crypts of Lleberkuhn, 113. 
Cuticle, 61. 
Cutis, vera, 62. 



1 lavaine, discoveries o 
Septicemia, on, 385. 



658 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 



Death: its modes, signs, and changes, 

256. 

Apnea, 257. 

Asphyxia, 257. 

Cessation of respiration, 262. 

Cessation of the heart's action, 261. 

Changes of, 264. 

Coma, 260. 

Cooling of the body, 264. 

Hypostasis, or post-mortem discolora- 
tion, 264. 

Loss of vitality, 263. 

Post-mortem discoloration, 264, .'Ills. 
Staining. 265, 

Rigor mortis, 205. 

Signs of, 261. 

Summary of the signs of, 267. 

Syncope, 257. 
Deodorants. 501, 507. 
Derma, OU. 
Dextrin, 2H!t. 
Diaphragm, the, 59. 
Dictionary of scientific and medical terms, 

a practical, 617. 
Digestion, 91. 

Fluids of, 90. 
Digestive organs, the, 89. 
Discolorations and their removal, 325. 

Bleachers and fluids not effective. :'.-'■>. 

Brownish or greenish spots, 328. 

Bruises or ecchymoses, .".US. 

Caused by biliverdin, 329. 

Ecchymoses, ,'!'_'S. 

Flushing of the face, 327. 

Greenish spots, 328. 

Hypostasis, 264, 327. 

Ice-mixture, the, 330. 

Post-mortem discoloration, 264, 328. 

Venous congestion, to remove, 325. 
Disinfectants, 510. 
Diseases, morbid, anatomy and treatment 

of special, o-".7. 

Accidental causes, death from. 444. 

Accidents, railroad and other, 450. 

Air passages and chest, diseases of. 
400. 
Other diseases of, 412. 

Alcoholism, acute, 471. 
Chronic, 47<>. 

Alimentary canal, other diseases ,of, 
423. 

Anemia of the lungs, 410. 

Anthrax, splenic fever. 378. 

Apoplexy, cerebral hemorrhage. 431. 

Appendicitis, 412. 

Appendix vermiformis, inflammation of 
the. 413. 

Asiatic cholera, 370. 

Asphyxia, 453. 

Bladder, diseases of, 428. 

Blood, diseases affecting the, :'»n.>. 

Blood poison, 385. 

Bright's disease, 424. 
Acute. 424. 
Cirrhotic, 424. 
Waxy, 424. 

Bronchitis. 412. 

Bubonic plague,_ 375. 

Camp fever, 357. 

Cancer, 4:',4. 

Cancer of the stomach. 434. 
Of the liver, 436. 



Diseases, morbid anatomy and treatment 

of special — Continued. 
Cancerous and constitutional diseases, 

134. 
Catarrh, intestinal, 420. 
Cerebral hemorrhage, 431. 
Cerebrospinal meningitis, 365. 
Child bed or puerperal fever, 396. 
Cholera, Asiatic, .">7o. 

Infantum, 418. 
-Morbus, 422. 

Sporadic, 422. 
Colitis, 42:;. 

Constipation, obstinate, 415. 
Consumption, tuberculosis, 360, 497. 
Contagious, infectious, and, 347, 368. 
Delirium tremens, 477. 
Diabetes, sugar in the urine, 427. 
Diphtheria, 350. 
Dropsy, 439. 
Drowned cases, 447. 

"Floater," 448. 
Dysentery, flux. 410. 
Electricity, lightning and, 449. 
Enteritis, 42:;. 
Entero-colitis. 42M. 
Erysipelas, 339. 
Flux, dysentery, 410. 
Freezing, death by, 454. 
Gangrene, mortification, 478. 
Gangrene of the lungs, 403. 
Gastritis, 44. 
Gunshot wounds, 452. 
Heart, valvular diseases of, 345. 
Heart and blood-vessels, of the, .'142. 
Hernia or rupture, 418. 
Hospital fever, .".57. 

Hypostatic congestion of the lungs, 409. 
Inflammation of the — 

Appendix vermiformis, 413. 

Bowels, 123. 

Kidneys, 427. 
Pericardium, 406. 

Pleura, 404. 
Infectious and contagious, 368. 
Intestinal catarrh, 420. 
lail fever, 357. 
Jaundice, lis. 

< )f the new born, 473. 
Kidney and bladder, diseases of, 424. 

Inflammation of the, 4l'7. 
I.arvngitis, 412. 
Leukemia, :VX\. 

Lightning and electricity, 449. 
Lockjaw (tetanus), 377. 
Lungs, anemia of the 410. 

Gangrene of. 403. 

Hypostatic congestion of, 409. 

Syphilitic diseases of, oSU. 
Lung fever, 400. 
Measles, 359. 

Meningitis, cerebrospinal, 365. 
Miscellaneous, 4~i>. 
Morphin or opium poisoning, 460. 
Mortification, 478. 

Mother and fetus in utero, death of, 
475. 

Multilation, cases of, 450. 

Nephritis — inflammation of kidney, 427. 

Nerves, diseases of the, 429. 



GENERAL INDEX 



659 









Diseases, morbid anatomy and treatment 

of special — Continued. 
Obstinate constipation, 415. 
Opium or morph.n poisoning, 460. 
Paralysis, 4-9. 
Pericarditis, 406. 
Peritonitis, 398. 
Pleurisy — pleuritis, 404. 
Pneumonia — lung fever, 400. 

Acute or croupous, 400. 

Hypostatic, 409. 
Poison, death from, 450. 

Arsenic, 462. 

Carbonic acid, 466. 
Oxid, 467. 

Coal gas, 46S. 

Corrosive, 457. 

Irritant, 458. 

Mercury, 463. 
Acute, 463. 
Chronic, 465. 

Neurotic, 459. 

Opium and morphin, 460. 
Post-mortem cases, 444. 
Puerperal or child-bed fever, 396. 
Purpura, 391. 
Pyemia, 389. 

Rag-sorters' disease, 378. 
Railroad and other accidents, 450. 
Rheumatism, 442. 
Rupture, or hernia, 41S. 
Scarlatina — scarlet fever, 347. 

Scrofula, 364. 
Septicemia, or septemia, 385. 
Ship fever, 357. 
Smallpox, 368. 
Senile gangrene, 478. 
Senility or old age, 476. 
Splenic fever, 378. 
Splenization, 409. 
Sporadic cholera, 422. 
Spotted fever, 365. 
Stomach, cancer of the, 434. 
Sunstroke, 479. 
Syphilis, 381. 

Syphilitic disease of the lungs, 382. 
Sugar in the urine, 427. 
Tuberculosis— consumption, 360. 
Tumors — malignant — cancers, 434. 

Benign, 438. 
Typhoid fever, 353. 
Typhus fever, 357. 
Tetanus — lockjaw, 377. 

Neonatorum, 375. 
Urine, sugar in the, 427. 
Valvular diseases of the heart, 345. 
Wool-sorters' disease, 377. 
Yellow fever, 373. 
Diodorus on Egyptian methods, 222, 21':'., 

225 
Disinfection and its effects, 501. 
Of rooms and their contents, 515. 
Of the embalmer, 539. 
Disinfectants, 501, 510. 
Duct or ducts — 
Arteriosus, 71. 
Biliary, 117. 
Cvstic. 117. 
Hepathic, 117. 
Lymphatic, 69. 
Pancreatic, 114-118. 
Rivinus, of, 89. 
Stenson's, 89. 



Duct or ducts — Continued. 

Thoracic, 69, 109, 110. 

Wharton's, 89. 
Ductus arteriosus, 196. 

Venosus, 196. 
Ductus communis choledochus, 114. 117 

118. 
Duodenum, 39. 
Dura mater, the, 73. 



Ear, the, 202. 
External, 202. 
Internal, 203. 
Middle, 203. 
Eichhorst, Asiatic cholera case report-" 

ed by, 371. 
Embalming, ancient, 218. 

Early Christians, among, 234. 
Egyptian methods, 219. 

Cartonnage, the, 225. 

Classes of embalming, 228. 

Costs of, 225, 229. 

Incising the body, 223. 

Ingredients used, 224. 

Intestines, 227. 

Medical fraternity, embalmers of the, 

Mummy wrappings, the, 225. 

Paraschistes, the, 223. 

Reasons for embalming, 220, 250. 

Removing the brain, 222. 
- Sarcophagi, the, 227. 

Scribe, the, 223. 

Selecting the pattern, '221. 

Stranger found dead, 229. 

Treatment of the viscera, 224. 
Jewish methods, 229. 

Embalming the poor, 231. 

In the time of Christ, 231. 

Eike those of Egypt, 230. 
Romans and other nations, of the, 232. 

Assyrians, the, 232. 

Babylonians, the, 232. 

Ethiopians, the, 232. 

Greeks, the, 232. 

Guanches, the, 232. 

Persians, the, 232. 

Scythians, the, 232. 
Western Hemisphere, on the, 233. 

Aztecs, the, 233. 

Indians, North American, 233. 

Peruvians, among early, 233. 

Royal Incas, 98. 
Arterial, 283. 

Brachial artery and basilic vein, the, 
289. 

Common carotid artery and inter- 
nal jugular vein, the, 292. 

Distinguish the artery, to, 2S4. 

Femoral artery and vein, the, 290. 

Injection of fluid, the, 286. 
Radial artery, the, 295. 

Second injection, a, 237. 

Selection of the artery, 283. 

Tibial arteries, the posterior and an- 
terior, 296. 
Cavity, 298. 

Necessity for, 252, 298. 

Sterilizing effete matter, 298, 



GGO 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK ON EMBALMING 



Embalming, ancient and modern — Con- 
tinued. 

Abdominal cavity, the, 305. 
Contents, position of its, 307. 
Organs, requiring special treat- 
ment, 308. 
Regions, its, 305. 
Thoracic cavity, the, 300. 

Gases in the pleurae and peri- 
cardium, 305. 
Inject the pleural sacs, to, 3irj. 
Fluid into the lung cavities, to, 
304. 
Location and contents, its, 300. 
Stomach, the, 310. 
Contraction, its, 311. 
Dilitation, its, 310. 
Cranial, 312. 

Barnes process, the, 313. 

Operation, the, 312. 
Embalmment through soft tissues 
on outside of skeleton, 315. 
Operation, the, 315. 
Eye process, the 312. 
Operation, the, 312. 
Nasal process, the, 314. 
Operation, the, .".14. 
Fluid, circulation of, 279. 
Instruments, their use and care, 557. 
Modern, 235. 

Bailie, Dr. Mathew, 237. 
Boudet process, M., 238. 
Brooks, Joshua, 238. 
Brunetti, 242. 

Chaussier's method, Dr., 241. 
England, but little practised in, 245. 
Falcony, M., 240. 
Florentine process, the, 244. 
Franchini's process, M., 238. 
Franciola's method, 241. 
Gannel, Jean Nicholas, 238. 
Gannel, Dr., 23!). 
German process, 244. 
Hunter, Dr. William, 236. 
Hunterian method, the, 237. 
Hunter, John, 237. 
Marini, Dr. Efisio, 24G. 
Ruysch, Dr. Frederic, 23f>. 
Sheldon, Dr., 238. 
Sucquet, M., 24n. 
Tscheirnoff's method. Dr., 242. 
Up-to-date, 248. 

Holmes, Dr. Thomas, ''father of 
embalming," 248. 
Preservation as a reason, 250. 
Sanitation as a reason, 250. 
Thorough embalmment, necessity for, 
255. 

Appearance after thorough embalm- 
ment, 2.~>3. 
Condition, appearance, and disease, 
2.-..".. 
Enamel, 91. 
Endocardium, the, 125. 
Fndosteum, 7. 
Endothelium, the, 64, 13.7. 
Epidermis, 61. 
Epiglottis, 84. 
Epithelium, 137. 
Esophagus, the, 89, 92. 



Embalming, ancient and modern— Con 

tinned. 

Eustachian tubes, 203. 

Valve, 126, 195. 
Eye, 198. 

Chambers of, 206. 

Choroid, the, 199. 

Crystalline lens, 201. 

Cornea, the, 199. 

Eyeball, the. L98. 

Eyelashes, the. 202. 

Eyelids, the, 201. 

Humor, aqueous, 2110. 
Vitreous, 200. 

Iris, the, 199. 
Lachrymal apparatus, the, 201. 

Gland, the, 201. 
Membranes, the, 1!)!). 
Retina, the, 200. 
Sclerotic, the, 190. 
Tunics, the, 100. 
Eye process, the, 310. 



Falk cerebri, the, 75, 70. 
Fascia;, 40. 

Deep, 57. 

Superficial, 40, 0... 

Transversalis, 02. 
Fasciculi, 37, 30. 
Fats, 207. 

Fauces, pillars of the, 89. 
Fermentation, 401. 
Fetal circulation, 103. 
Fibers of Corti, 204. 
Fibrils (filaments), 3,7. 
Fibro-areolar tissue, 40, 64. 
Fibro-cartilage. 28. 
Fibrous membranes, 40. 
"Floater," 448. 
Flugge on disinfect'on, 516. 
Fluid, circulation of, 270. 
Follicles of Lieberkuhn, 113. 
Foramen magnum, to inject through the, 

313. 
Foramen ovale, 195. 
Formaldehyde gas, 505, 516, 520. 

Allan on, 521. 
Formalin distillation, 524. 
Frenum of the tongue, 01. 
Fumigation, 507. 
Fundus, the, 112. 
Funeral directing, hints on, 543. 



Gall-bladder, 109, 118. 

Ganglions, 71, 75. 

Gases : their production and elimination, 

331. 

How eliminated, 332. 

Pleura and pericardium, 305. 

What they are, .",31. 

Where found, 331. 
General Baggage Agents' Association, ac- 
tion of, 528. 
General Index, 655. 
General Miscellany, 541. 
Geppert, experiments of, 500. 
(.land or Glands — 

Brunner's, 113. 

Ductless, 118. 



GENERAL INDEX 



661 



Gland or glands — Continued. 

Duodenal, 113. 

Gastric, the, 113. 

Lachrymal, 201. 

Liver, 89, 109, 110, 115. 

Lymphatic, 69. 

Mammary, 215. 

Meibomian, 202. 

Peptic, the, 113. 

Salivary, the, 89. 
Parotid, 89. 
Sublingual, 89. 
Submaxillary, 89. 

Sebaceous, 66. 

Solitary, 113. 

Sudoriferous, 63. 

Sweat, 63. 

Thymus, the, 119. 

Thyroid, 85, 119. 
Globulin, 210. 

Glosso-epigottic ligament, 91. 
Glottis, 84. 
Glycogen, 209. 

Gryphius on ancient embalming, 226 
Gullet, 92, 302. 



H 
Hair, the, 65. 

Follicles, 66. 

Papilla, 66. 
Haversian canals, 7. 
Health boards, 526. 
Heart and blood, the, 124. 
Heart and veins, valves of the, 147 
Heart, the, 124, 301. 

Auricle, left, 125, 127. 
Right, 125, 126. 

Capacity, its, 129. 

Cavities, its, 125. 

Circulation not destroying by tapping 
the, 324. 

Description and location, 50. 

Direct from the, 317. 

Endocardium, the, 125. 

Moyements and sounds, its, 128. 

Pericardium, the, 125. 

Ventricle, left, 124, 125 127 
Right, 124, 125, 126. 

Weight and size, 125. 
Hemoglobin, 210. 
Henle on bacteria, 488. 
Hepatic lobules, 117. 
TI ?™, dotus on Egyptian methods, 220, 

Hints on funeral directing, 543. 

History of bacteriology, 483. 

Hoffman, demonstrations of, 487 

Holmes, Dr. Thomas, 248. 

Howard's method of artificial respiration, 

06. 



Human body, the 
Hunters Canal, 60. 
Hydrochloric acid, 211 
Hypostasis, 264. 



I 
nixturc, 330. 
fossa, 114, 115. 

rations, lisl of, xxv. 

mity, susceptibility and, 499. 

ng the body, 2i':;. 



Index, general, 655. 
Infection and contagion, 497 
Channels of, 498. 
Susceptibility and immunity, 499 
Inject fluid into the lung cavities, to, 304 

Pleural sacs, the, 302. 
Injecting arteries, 283. 
Injection, arterial, 283 
Cavity, 298. 
Of fluids, the, 286. 
Second, a, 287. 
Instruments, their selection and care, 557 
selecting, 5o9. 
Sterlizing, 556, 558. 
Intestinal juice, 113. 
Intestines — 

Large, S9, 109, 115. 

Appendix vermiformis, 109 115 
Cecum, 111, 114 
Colon, 110, 115. 
Rectum, 115. 
Sigmoid flexure, 115. 
Small, 89, 109, 110, 111, 113 
Duodenum. 109, 113 
Ileum, 110. 113, 114. 
Jejunum, 110, 113. 114 
Treatment of the, 227. 



Jaws, 89, 91. 
Jejunum, 110, 113, 114. 



K 

Kidney or kidneys, 109, 110, 119 915 

Kircher, Athanasius, theory of, 483 

Kitasato on antiseptics, 374. 

Klein, experiments of, 504 

choler^o' 165 ° f COnc ™g Asiatic 
Experiments upon anthrax spores, 504. 



Labyrinth, the. 203. 

Lacteals, the, 68. 

Lactose, 209, 215. 

Lacunae, the, 7. 

Lange, Christian, on bacteria, 483 

Larynx, the, 83. 

Le o e f UW 483° eCk ' Anthony Van > discoveries 
Lens, crystalline, 201. 
Leucocytes, 214, 275. 
Ligaments, the, 28. 
Ligamentum teres, 116. 

Glosso-epiglottis, 91. 

Poupart's, 28. 
Liebrich, experiments of, 506. 
Linear Guide, 297 
Lips, 89, 92. 
Liver, the. 89, 109, 110. 115. 



Cavities, to in 
Lunula, the, 67.' 



ito the, 304. 



(>G2 



CHAMPION TEXT-BOOK OX EMBALMING 



Lymphatics, the, 07, 68. 
Lymphatic system, the, 67 

Ducts, the, 67. 

Glands, the, 67. 
Lymph, the, 69. 



M 



Maltose, 209. 

Mastication, 91. 

Matrix, the, 67. 

Mediastinum, the, 88. 

Medulla oblongata, the, 80. 

Medullary canal, 5. 

Meninges, the, 73. 

Membrane, mucous, 64. 

Mercury, poisoning by, 461. 

Mesentery or mesenteries, 109, 121. 

Micrococcus or micrococci, 490. 

Pneumonia; crouposa-, 4<Hi. 
Micro-organisms, 485. 
Milk, 215. 

Miscellaneous diseases, 470. 
Miscellany, general, 541. 
Modes of death, 256. 

Morbid anantomy and treatment of spe- 
cial diseases (see alro diseases), 337. 

Accidental causes, death from, 444. 

Air-passages and chest, diseases of the, 
400. 

Blood, diseases affecting the, 385. 

Digestive system, diseases of the, 413. 

Infectious and contagious diseases, 347, 
368. 

Kidneys and bladder, diseases of, 424. 

Miscellaneous diseases, 470. 

Nerves, diseases of the, 429. 

Poison, death from, 456. 

Vascular system, diseases affecting the, 

Morphin or opium poisoning, 460. 

Mouth, 82, 89. 

Mucus, 64, 86. 

Mummy wrappings, the, 225. 

Muscle or muscles, 37. 

Adductor Longus, the, 59. 

Aponeurosis, 40. 

Arrangement of, 36. 

Attachment of, 39. 
Insertion, 39. 

Origin, 39. 

Biceps, the, 58. 

Classification, 39. 

Composition, 37. 

Contractility, 38. 

Development of the, 57. 

Diaphragm, the, 59. 
" Fasciae, 48. 
Deep, 57. 
Superficial. 40. 

Kinds of, 38. 
Involuntary, 38. 
Voluntary, 38. 

Modification of, 37. 

Muscular sense, 57. 

Number of. 5! . 

Plasma. 38. 

Fsoas, 92. 

Quadratus, 92. 

Scarpa's triangle, 60. 



Muscle or muscles — Continued. 

Sartorius, the, 59. 

Sternocleidomastoid, the, 58. 

Tendons, the, 39. 

Wonders of the, ,57. 
Myers, Dr., letter on disinfecting a body 

for shipment, 536. 



N 

Nails, the, 66. 

Lunula, the, 67. 

Matrix, the, 66. 
Narcotic poisoning, rules for restoring 

from, 548. 
National conference of the State Boards 

of Health action of, 528. 
Natural breathing, to restore, 548. 
Needham's doctrine of spontaneous gen- 
eration, 486. 
Needle processes, so-called, 312. 

Barnes process, the, 313. 

Eye process, the, 312. 

Foramen magnum, to inject through, 313. 

Nasal process, the, 314. 
Nerve-current, 72. 

Sensations, 22. 
Nerves, the, 71. 

Cardiac, the, 76. 

Cranial, the, 81. 

Vasomotor, the, 73, 76. 
Nervous system, the, 71. 

Ganglions, the, 74. 

Tissue, 71. 
Nose, 82, 204. 

Novy on formalin distillation, 524. 
Novy's Formaldehyde gas generator, 525. 



O 

Odontoid process, 25. 

Omentum or omenta, the, 109, 111, 121 

Organs of special senses, 198. 

Hearing, 202. 

Sight, 198. 

Smelling, 204. 

Taste and touch, 204. 
Osier on cerebro spinal meningitis, .•',65. 

On apoplexy, 431. 
Opium or morphin poisoning, 460. 
Osteologv, 4. 
Otoliths, 204. 
Oxanam on bacteriology, 485. 



Palate, hard and soft, 89. 

Pancreas, 89, 109, 111, 121. 

Pancreatic juice, 113, 118, 212. 

Papilla or papilla, 66, 91. 

Parasites, 492. 

Parenchyma, the, 83. 

Pasteur, discoveries of, 486. 

Peacock, case of obstinate constipation 

reported bv, 416. 
Pelvic cavity, the, 121, 308. 
Pepton, 210, 214. 
Perimysium, internal, 37. 

External, 37. 



GENERAL INDEX 



663 



Pericardium, 125, 301. 

Periosteum, 6. 

Peritonea] sacs, 121. 

Peritoneum, 120. 

Peyer's patches, 113. 

Pharynx, the, S3, 89, 92. 

Pia mater, the, 77. 

Placenta, 194. 

Placental circulation, 194. 

Plasma, 214. 

Plenciz, observation of, 485. 

Pleurae and pericardium, gases in the, 305. 

Pleura:, the, 88, 301. 

Plural sacs, to inject the, 302. 

Plutarch on Egyptian methods, 227. 

Poison, death from, 456. 

Pollender, discoveries of, 480. 

Pons Variolii, the, 75, 76. 

Popliteal space, the, 60. 

Porphyry on Egyptian methods, 227. 

Portal system of veins, 18S. 

Vein, 188. 
Post-mortem cases, 444. 

Wounds, 554. 
Poupart's ligament, 109. 
Preface to revised edition, iii. 

To first edition, v. 
Prescott's "Conquest of Peru," from, 233. 
Preservation as a reason for embalm- 

ing, 250. 
Proteids, 210. 
Proteins, 209. 
Pubic arch, 25. 
Pulmonary circulation, 186. 

Arteries, the, 186. 

Capillaries, the, 187. 

Veins, the, 186. 
Pulse-beat, 129. 
Purging and its treatment, 333. 

Stomach, from the, 333. 
Treatment, 334. 

Lungs, from the, 334. 
Treatment, 335. 
Putrefaction, 269, 502. 

Its modifications and peculiarities, 269. 
Pyloric orifice, 112. 
Pylorus, the, 112. 



Questions and Answers, A Compendium 

of Practical, 559. 
Anatomy and physiology, 507. 

Arteries, 5S5. 

Bones, muscles, etc., ->67^ 

Circulatory system, the, 580. 

Digestion, organs of, 577. 

Nervous system, 572. 

Respiratory organs, 575. 

Veins, 589. 
Visceral anatomy, 570. 
Embalming, 591. 
Sanitation and disinfection. 607. 



Raisins; and injecting arteries. 283, 
Axillary, 207.' 

Brachial artery and basilic vein, the, 
280. 



Raising and injecting arteries — Continued. 

Common carotid artery and internal 
jugular vein, 292. 

Femoral artery and vein, the, 290. 

Radial artery, the, 295. 

Posterior and anterior tibial arteries, 
the, 296. 
Receptaculum chyli, 109, 110. 
Rectum, the, 115. 
Respiration, the organs of, 82. 

Howard's method of artificial, 547. 
Restore natural breathing, treatment to, 

To imitate the movements of breath- 
ing, 549. 
To adjust the patient's position, 549. 
To excite inspiration, 549. 
To maintain a free entrance of air into 
the windpipe, 548. 
Resuscitation, 547. 

Apparently dead, directions for restoring 

the, 548. 
Artificial respiration, Howard's method 

of, 547. 
Asphyxia from advancing coma or from 

narcotics and anesthetics, 551. 
Breathing noxious gases, 551. 
Drowning, from 552. 

Howard's method of artificial respira- 
tion, 547. 
Mechanical obstruction of the air-pas- 
sages, from, 551. 
Narcotics or anesthetics, 548. 
Lightning stroke or electricity, suspended 

animation from, 552. 
Natural breathing has been restored, 

treatment after, 550. 
Drowning or other suffocation or nar- 
cotic poisoning, treatment to restore 
from, 548. 

If from apoplexy or sunstroke, 550. 
Intense cold, 550. 
Intoxication, 550. 
To induce circulation and warmth, 550. 
Rules of the Royal Humane Society, 

548. 
Syncope, treatment for, 551. 
Rete mucosum, 63. 
Retina, the, 200. 
Richardson, Dr. B. W., quotation from, 

245. 
Rules of the Royal Humane Society, 548. 



Saliva, the, 90, 210. 

Samazurier, case of obstinate constir 

tion reported by, 416. 
Sanitation and disinfection, 481. 

As a reason for embalming, 251. 
Scarpa's triangle, 28, 60. 
Schroeder, experiments of, 487. 
Schulze, investigations of, 487. 
Schwann, experiments of, -1S7. 
Sebaceous glands, 66. 
Selina on alkaloids, 554. 
Sinus or sinuses. 136. 

Base of the skull, of the, 177. 

Cavernous, 177. 

Circular, 177. 

Dura Mater, of the, 176. 
Lateral, 177. 



004 



CHAMPION TEXT-HOOK ON EM HALM IN G 



Sincus or sinuses — Continued. 
Longitudinal, inferior, 177. 

Superior, 176. 
Occipital, 177. 
Petrosal, inferior, 177. 

Superior, 177. 
Straight, 177. 
Transverse, 177. 
Schering's pastilles, to disinfect with, 523. 
Shipping rules, the, 529. 

Comments upon the, 532. 
Sigmoid rlexture, 115. 
Signs of death, 261. 

Summary of the, 257. 
Skin, the, 61, 205. 

Corium, derma, cutis vera, 62. 
Cuticle, epidermis, scarf-skin, 61. 
Cutis vera, 62. 
Derma, 62. 
Epidermis, 61. 
Hair, 60. 
Nails, 66. 

kete mucosum, 63. 
Scarf-skin, 61. 
•'Skin slip," 63, 273. 
Its cause, 273. 
Its prevention, 274. 
Solar plexus, 109, 110. 
Spallanzani, experiments of, 486. 
Special diseases, treatment of, :i::7. 
Special senses, organs of, 198. 
Spermatic vessels, 109, 111. 
Spincter ani, 115. 
Spinal cord, 8, 125. 
Spirillum or spirilla, 370. 
Choler.-e Asiatics, 370. 
Spleen, the, 109, 110, 118. 
Spores, 489. 
Starch, 209. 
Sterilizing instruments, 558. 

Kffete matter, 298. 
Stilla on Asiatic cholera, ."'.72. 
Stomach, the, 89, li.'.l, 11(1, 111, ]f 
310. 
Contraction, its. 311. 
Dilitation, its. 310. 
Stumpell on tubercular meningitis. 362. 
Sudoriferous glands, 650. 
Sulphur fumes (sulphur dioxid), 51S. 
Sunnyside, quotation from, 245. 
Suprarenal capsules, the, 109. 
Susceptibility and immunity, 499. 
Sweat glands, 63. 

Sylvester method of respiration, 548. 
> inpathetic system, 77. 
Symphisis pubis, 25. 
Syncope, 257, 551. 
Synovia, 28. 
Synovial membrane, 28. 



Teeth, the. SO, 91. 
Tendons, the, 37. 
Tetanus or lockjaw. .",77. 

Neonatorum, : ; 7 T . 
Thoracic cavity, the, 300. 

To remove gases from the, 160. 
Thorax, 25. 59. 
Thoracic duct, 69, 109, 110 
Thymus, 119. 
Thyroid, gland, the, 85, 119. 



I issue or tissues, 40. 

Adipose or fat t \ . 65. 

Areolar, :;7, 65. 

Fibro-areolar, 40, 64. 

Cellular, 37, 64. 

Connective, 64, 65. 

Subcutaneous, (if. 
Tongue, the, 89, 01, 111', i»u4. 
Touch, 2(14, 205. 

Trachea, or windpipe, the, 84, 302. 
Transportation of bodies, 528. 
Trypsin, I'll'. 
Transversalis fascia, 01. 
Tonsils, 84. 
Tympanum, the, 202. 
Tyndal, Prof., investigations of, 487 



Umbilical cord, 196. 
Urea, 215. 

Ureter or ureters, 109. 
Urine, the, 120, 215. 
Uterus, 109, 111. 
Uvula, 89. 



Van Leeuwenhoeck, Antony, discoveries 

ot, 483. 
Valves of the heart, 127. 
Van Dusch, experiments of, 4S7. 
Vasa Vasorum, 133. 
Vena Port.e, 193. 
Vein or veins, 135. 

Auricular posterior, 176. 
Axillary, 181. 
Azygos, 110, 182. 

Left lower (minor), 182. 
Left upper (minimus), 182. 
Right (major), 182. 
Basilic, 180. 

Median, 188. 
Bronchial, 85, 182. ' 
Cardiac, 185. 
Cephalic, median, 180. 
Cerebral, 176. 
Superficial, 186. 
Deep, 136, 170. 
Digital, 180. 
Diploe, of the, 176. 
External, of the, 175. 
Facial, 175. 
Femoral, 1S4. 
Castries, 193. 

Head and neck, of the, 175. 
Hepatic. 185. 
Iliac, common, 184. 
External, 1S4. 
Internal, 1S4. 
Innominate, 181. 
Intercostal, superior, 182. 
Jugular, anterior, 170. 

External. 1 7S. 
Internal. 170, 292. 

Posterior, 178. 
Kinds of, 136. 
Lower extremity, of the, 182. 

Deep, 184. 
Lumbar, 185. 
Mammary, internal. 182. 



GENERAL INDEX 



665 



Vein or veins — Continued. 
Maxillary, external, 175. 
Median, 180. 
Mediastinal, 182. 
Mesenteric, 42. 

Inferior, 1SS. 

Superior, 193. 
Neck, of the, 178. 
Occipital, 176. 
Palmar, deep, 181. 
Phrenic, 185. 
Plantars, 184. 
Popliteal, 184. 
Portal, 188. 
Portal system, 188. 
Pulmonary, 186. 
Radial, 180. 
Renal, left, 119, 185. 
Saphenus, external, 183. 

Internal, 183. 
Spermatic, 185. 
Spinal, 182. 
Splenic, 193. 
Subclavian, 181. 
Superficial or peripheral, 
Suprarenal, 119, 185. 
Systemic, the. 175. 
Temporal, 175. 
Thorax, of the, 1S2. 
Thyroid, inferior, 182. 
Tibials, anterior, 184. 

Posterior, 184. 



Vein or veins. — Continued. 

Temporo-maxillary, 175. 

Ulnar, anterior, 179. 
Common, 179. 

Posterior, 179. 

Umbilical, 196. 

Upper extremities, of the, 179. 
Deep, 180. 

Vena cava, inferior, 109, 110, 185, 302. 
Superior, 181, 302. 

Vertebral, 179. 
Vena azygos, the, 87. 

Minor, 92. 
Venae comites, 136. 
Venous valves, 135. 

Anastomosis, 135. 

Coats, 135. 
Vermiform appendix, 115. 
Vertebras, 8. 

Villus or villi, the, 68, 113. 
Visceral anatomy, 70. 
Vocal cords, 84. 
Viscera, treatment of, 226. 
Von Dusch, experiments of, 487. 
Von Hoffman, discovery of formaldehyde, 

521. 



Watson on septicemia, 
Windpipe, the, 84. 



. 



